Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 had its origins in the Russian goal of gaining access to the Mediterranean Sea and dominating Constantinople (Istanbul) and the adjacent Turkish Straits. However, due to bad experience during the Crimean War, Russian diplomacy advertised the war as an effort of liberating the Slav peoples of the Balkan Peninsula of south-eastern Europe from the Turkish-ruled Ottoman Empire.

Contents

1 The war begins: Balkan sources and Russian maneuvering

2 Prosecution: the one-eyed and the blind

3 Course of the War

4 Conclusion: the Powers intervene

5 See also

6 External link

The war begins: Balkan sources and Russian maneuvering

An anti-Ottoman uprising occurred in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the summer of 1875. The main reason for this revolt was the heavy tax burden imposed by financially defunct Ottoman administration. Despite some relaxation of taxes, the uprising continued well over the end of 1875 and eventually triggered the Bulgarian April uprising of 1876. Tension in Bosnia and Russian support encouraged the principalities of Serbia and Montenegro's declaration of war against their nominal Ottoman overlord early in July. The war raised imperial appetite of superpowers Russia (Prince Gorchakov) and Austria-Hungary (Count Andrássy), who made the secret Reichstadt Agreement in July 8, on partitioning the Balkan peninsula depending on the outcome.

In August 1876, Serb forces were defeated by the Turkish army, which was the worst-case scenario for Russians and Austrians as they couldn't claim any Ottoman possessions. However the atrocities committed against the civilian Slav population during the war and during the Bulgarian April uprising had a wide-spread response throughout Europe. As a result the Constantinople Conference was held in December 1876 in Constantinople (Istanbul). At this conference, at which Turkey was not represented, superpowers discussed the boundaries of one or more future autonomous Bulgarian provinces within the Ottoman Empire.

The Conference was interrupted by the Turkish foreign minister, who informed the delegates that Turkey had approved a new constitution, which guaranteed rights and freedoms of all ethnic minorities and Bulgarians would enjoy equal rights with all Ottoman citizens. Despite that, Russia remained hostile towards the Ottoman Empire, speculating that the constitution was only a partial solution. Through diplomatic negotiations Russians ensured the inaction of Austria in future military operations. The remaining superpowers were paralyzed by strong civil support for the idea of Bulgarian independence, by their disbelief in the capabilities of the Russian army, and by other internal problems.

Prosecution: the one-eyed and the blind

Russia declared war on Turkey on 24 April 1877. Some described this war as "a war between the one-eyed and the blind —", so many errors of strategy and judgment were committed.

In the beginning of the war the outcome was far from obvious. The Russians could raise a larger army, an army of about 200,000 was within their reach. The Turks had about 160,000 troops on the Balkan peninsula. The Turks had the advantage of being fortified, and they also had a complete command of the Black Sea, and had patrol boats along the Danube river.

In reality, however, most of the time Turks used only about 25% of their military capacity. In addition to that, Turks had no idea of Russian plans and made little attempt to predict their actions and to counter them. They preferred to stay fortified and wait until the enemy knocks on their doors.

On top of that Turkish military command in Istanbul made some wrong assumptions. They decided that Russians would be too lazy to march along the Danube and cross it away from the delta, and would prefer the short way along the Black Sea coast, thus ignoring the fact that this area had the strongest, well supplied and garrisoned Turkish fortresses. So there was only one well manned fortress along the inner part of the river Danube. This was Vidin, and it was garisoned simply because the troops, lead by Osman Pasha, had soon crashed the Serbs in their recent war against Turkey.

Missing image
Kärtchen_zur_Schlacht_bei_Plewna_(11._&_12.09.1877).jpg

Russian and Romanian troops called for help at Pleven

Course of the War

At the beginning of the war Russians destroyed all vessels along the Danube, and mined the river, thus ensuring they could cross the Danube at any point they want. This again didn't mean anything for the Turkish command. In June a small Russian unit passed the Danube close to the delta, at Galatz and marched in the direction of Ruse. This made the Turks even more confident that the big Russian force is to come right through the middle of the Turkish stronghold. Then in July the Russians, unobstructed, constructed a bridge up the Danube at Svishtov, and started passing. There were no significant Turkish troops in the area. The command in Istanbul ordered Osman Pasha to march in that direction and fortify in the nearby fortress of Nikopol. On his way to Nikopol Osman Pasha learned that the Russians had already assumed firm control of that fortress, so he moved to Pleven. Less than 24 hours after Osman Pasha's fortification at Pleven, numerous Russian forces under charismatic "White General" Skobelev attacked the city. Osman Pasha organized brilliant defence and repelled two Russian attacks with huge casualties for the Russian side. At that point the sides were almost equal in numbers and the Russian Army was very discourraged, so most analysts agree that a counter-attack would have allowed the Turks to gain control and destroy the passing bridge. However, Osman Pasha had orders to stay fortified in Pleven, and that's exactly what he did.

Russians had no more troops to throw against Pleven, so they laid a siege on it, and asked the Romanians to help with troops. Soon after that Romanians passed the Danube and joined the siege. They fought bravely to capture the Grivitza redoubts around Pleven, and kept them under their control from there on, to the very end of the siege. The siege of Pleven (July–December 1877) turned to victory only after Russians cut off all supply routes of the fortified Turks, starving them and thus forcing them to surrender.

Russians under Field Marshal Joseph Vladimirovich Gourko succeeded in capturing the passes at the Stara Planina mountain which was crucial for manuevering. Next both sides fought a series of battles for Shipka Pass. Gourko took control of the pass, after the Turkish troops there, having repelled several attacks evacuated. Later on Turks spent a lot of effort to recapture this important route that could help them reinforce Osman Pasha in Pleven, but all in vain. Eventually Gourko led a final offensive which crushed the Turks around Shipka Pass. The Turkish offensives against the Shipka pass is considered one of the major mistakes of the war, as there were other passes that were virtually unguarded. All this time a huge number of Turkish troops stayed fortified along the Black Sea coast and engaged in very few operations.

Romanian troops taking Grivita Strongpoint

A strong Finnish contingent as well as a Romanian corps and volunteer brigades from the local Bulgarian population took part in the war fighting on the side of the Russians. On their return home, in his gratitude at the Finnish batallion which punched above its weight, the Tsar elevated the regiment to the name Old Guard Batallion, which they still hold.

Conclusion: the Powers intervene

In February 1878 the Russian army had almost reached Istanbul, but scared the city might fall, the British sent a fleet of battle-ships to intimidate Russia not to enter the city. Under negotiating "help" from that fleet and the fact that the Russians had suffered such enormous losses (by some estimates about 200,000 men) Russia settled for the Treaty of San Stefano (Ayastefanos Anlaşması in Turkish) (March 3), by which Ottoman Empire recognized independence of its former provinces of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and autonomy of Bulgaria. Alarmed by the extension of the Russian power into the Balkans, the Great Powers forced modifications of the provisions of the treaty in the Congress of Berlin.