Trace italienne
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The trace italienne is a style of fortification that was developed in Italy in the late 15th and early 16th century in response, primarily to the French invasion of the Italian peninsula. The French army was equipped with new cannons and bombards that were able to easily destroy traditional fortifications built in the middle ages.
In order to counteract the power of the new weapons, defensive walls were made lower and thicker. They were built of many materials, usually dirt and stone. Another important design modification was the bastions that characterized the new fortresses. In order to improve the defense of the fortress, covering fire had to be provided, often from multiple angles. The result was the development of "star" shaped fortresses.
The design spread out of Italy in the 1530s and 40s. It was employed heavily throughout Europe for the following 2-3 centuries. Italian engineers were heavily in demand throughout Europe to help build the new fortifications.
The late 17th century architects Vauban and Menno van Coehoorn are considered to have taken the form to its logical extreme. "Fortressess... acquired ravelins and redoubts, bonnettes and lunettes, tenailles and tenaillons, counterguards and crownworks and hornworks and curvettes and fausse brayes and scarps and cordons and banquettes and counterscarps... that baroque profusion."
Despite the advantages of these fortresses over earlier designs, "most first-class fortresses could be taken in roughly six to eight weeks."