Toll bridge
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A toll bridge is a bridge over which traffic may pass upon payment of a fee, or 'toll'. Some major facilities may be in combination with a tunnel and are called a bridge-tunnel complex.
See main article toll road for more general information.
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History, ownership
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The practice of collecting tolls on bridges probably harks back to the days of ferry crossings where people paid a fee to be ferried across stretches of water. As boats became impractical to carry large loads, ferry operators looked for new sources of revenue. Having built a bridge, they hoped to recoup their investment by charging tolls for people, animals, vehicles and goods to cross it.
Many of London's bridges across the River Thames started out as toll bridges but were taken over by the Metropolitan Board of Works during the 19th century. However, the practice of building bridges for private (or local authority) gain continues.
In the United States, private ownership of toll bridges peaked in the mid 19th century, and by the turn of the twentieth century most toll bridges were taken over by state highway departments. In some instances, a quasi-governmental authority was formed, and toll revenue bonds were issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility.
Removal/continuation of tolls
In some instances, tolls have been removed after retirement of the toll revenue bonds issued to raise funds for construction and/or operation of the facility. Examples of such a facilities were tolls were removed include the Robert E. Lee Memorial Bridge in Richmond, Virginia which carries U.S. Highway 1 across the James River, and the 4.5-mile long James River Bridge 80 miles downstream which carries U.S. Highway 17 across the river of the same name near its mouth at Hampton Roads. In other cases, especially major facilities such as the Chesapeake Bay Bridge near Annapolis, Maryland, and the George Washington Bridge over Hudson River between New York City and New Jersey, the continued collection of tolls provides a dedicated source of funds for ongoing maintenance and improvements.
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In Scotland, the Scottish Parliament purchased the Skye Bridge from its owners in late 2004, ending the requirement to pay an unpopular expensive toll to cross to Skye from the mainland.
Toll collection
It has become increasingly common for a toll bridge to only charge a fee in one direction. This helps reduce the traffic congestion in the other direction, and generally does not significantly reduce revenue, especially when those traveling the one direction are forced to come back over the same or a different toll bridge.
Toll avoidance: shunpiking
A practice known as shunpiking evolved which entails finding another route for the specific purpose of avoiding payment of tolls.
In some situations where the tolls were increased or felt to be unreasonably high, informal shunpiking by individuals escalated into a form of boycott by regular users, with the goal of applying the financial stress of lost toll revenue to the authority determining the levy.
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One such example of shunpiking as a form of boycott occurred at the James River Bridge in eastern Virginia. After years of lower than anticipated revenues on the narrow privately-funded structure built in 1928, the state of Virginia finally purchased the facility in 1949 and increased the tolls in 1955 without visibly improving the roadway, with the notable exception of a new toll plaza.
The increased toll rates incensed the public and business users alike. In a well-publicized example of shunpiking, Joseph W. Luter Jr., head of Smithfield Packing Company, the producer of world-famous Smithfield Hams, ordered his truck drivers to take a different route and cross a smaller and cheaper bridge. Tolls continued for 20 more years, and were finally removed from the old bridge in 1975 when construction began on a toll-free replacement structure.
Historic examples of toll bridges
North America
- Brooklyn Bridge between Manhattan Island and Brooklyn, New York, opened in 1883.
- Collins Bridge, longest wooden bridge in the world when opened in 1913, across Biscayne Bay between Miami on the mainland and the barrier island which became Miami Beach, Florida.
- James River Bridge, longest bridge over water in the world when completed in 1928, across the James River between Warwick County and Isle of Wight County near Hampton Roads.
- Florida Overseas Highway between Florida and Key West, Florida. Built on the former alignment of the Key West Extensions of the Florida East Coast Railway, it included the Seven Mile Bridge.
Modern examples of toll bridges
Europe
- France
- Scandinavia
- Oresund Bridge - connecting the Danish island of Sealand with Sweden
- Turkey
- UK
- Dartford Crossing - over the Thames, near Dartford in north Kent
- Forth Road Bridge - over the River Forth west of Edinburgh
- Humber Bridge - over the Humber connecting Yorkshire and Lincolnshire
- Mersey Tunnels: Queensway_Tunnel and Kingsway_Tunnel in Liverpool
- Severn Bridge - between England and Wales
- Whitchurch Bridge
North America
- Golden Gate Bridge
- San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge
- Mackinac Bridge --connecting the two peninsulas of Michigan
- Tobin Bridge - over Mystic River in Boston
- George Washington Bridge - over Hudson River between New York City and New Jersey
- Verrazano Narrows Bridge - connects Brooklyn to Staten Island in New York City
- Delaware Memorial Bridge between Wilmington, Delaware and southern New Jersey
- Chesapeake Bay Bridge near Annapolis, Maryland
- Francis Scott Key Bridge near Baltimore, Maryland
- Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel - connects Delmarva Peninsula to Virginia Beach, Virginia
- Confederation Bridge - connects New Brunswick to Prince Edward Island
- Dumbarton Bridge - in San Francisco Bay Area
Australia
- Sydney Harbour Bridge and tunnel. (Road & Rail)