Norse saga
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The Norse sagas or Viking sagas (Icelandic: sgur), are stories about ancient Scandinavian and Germanic history, about early Viking voyages, about migration to Iceland, and of feuds between Icelandic families. One of them, the Gutasaga, was written on Gotland and deals with the early history of the Gotlanders. They were written in the Old Norse language.
The texts are epic tales in prose, often with stanzas or whole poems in alliterative verse embedded in the text, of heroic deeds of days long gone, tales of worthy men, who were often Vikings, sometimes Pagan, sometimes Christian. The tales are usually realistic (except, of course, legendary sagas, sagas of saints, sagas of bishops and translated or recomposed romances), sometimes romanticised and fantastic, but always dealing with human beings we can understand.
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Background
The (English) saga , (German) Sage originates from (Icelandic) saga, pl. sgur and refers to (1) "what is said, statement" or (2) "story, tale, history". Icelandic sagas are based on oral traditions and much research has focused on what is real and what is fiction within each tale. The accuracy of the sagas is often hotly disputed, being both overestimated and underestimated by various scholars. Most of the manuscripts in which the sagas were originally preserved were taken to Denmark and Sweden in the 17th century, but later returned to Iceland.
There are plenty of tales of kings (e.g. Heimskringla), every-day people (e.g. Bandamanna saga) and larger than life characters (e. g. Egils saga). The sagas describe a part of the history of some of the Nordic countries (e.g. the last chapter of Hervarar saga). England and North America are also mentioned. It was only recently (start of 20th century) that the tales of the voyages to America were authenticated.
Most sagas of Icelanders take place in the period 930–1030, which is actually called sguld (Age of the Sagas) in Icelandic history. The sagas of kings, bishops, contemporary sagas and so on, of course have their own time frame. Most were written down between 1190 to 1320, sometimes existing as oral traditions long before, others are pure fiction, and for some we do know the sources: The author of King Sverrir's saga had met the king and used him as a source.
On the plots and writing style
Some Norse Sagas live between Christianity and Paganism ( Njl's saga is an example; see also Norse mythology.) Aside from Christian influence, the world of the sagas is strongly pagan, and fate plays a central role, a key line in Njal's Saga (chapter 6, as translated by Magnus Magnusson; references below) is
- ... each must do as destiny decides.
The civilization of Norse sagas is complex, many-layered, with often-contradictory agents sometimes acting as forces for good, sometime evil, and always grippingly human.
The writing style tends towards the impersonal, terse, with no explanation of why's. Things happen; no one questions fate. Characters are often but briefly introduced, There was a man named ..., followed by brief biographies, genealogy, and all-important relations to other figures in the saga. Personalities are shown through action, seldom through analysis any deeper than offhand lines like He was an utter scoundrel, or, He was a powerful chieftain. Often a prominent agent figures in other sagas, and one may draw information from them, which saga writers simply assumed. Relationships between individuals are complex, by friendship, blood, marriage, and immediate geography.
One must often and at disadvantage overcome fantastic enemies. Life is short, uncertain, and men's worth is determined by glory in arms.
Critical concepts to the Norse saga technique are honour, luck (or destiny), and fate, the supernatural, and character. Behavior is often not explained, as within the world of the saga it is what must be done, and early listeners of sagas had no need of questions.
Any slight to one's honour (or that of one's family) had to be avenged, by blood or money. Men could easily be goaded to fatal violence over a (real or imagined) slight to their honour.
The concept of luck is simple, certainly in one such as Njal's Saga: one is born with a certain store of good luck. When your good luck runs out, you're doomed.
The supernatural often plays a major role as well. Oneiric (i.e., relating to prophetic dreams) factors may also play a role.
Do agents have the character to surmount their difficulties, or do they succumb to vices such as evil, cowardice and pride?
As a final stylistic point, Magnus Magnusson beautifully notes in his introduction to Njal's Saga,
- In the midst of such economy, one spendthrift sentence can speak volumes: 'two ravens flew with them all the way' (Chapter 79) as Skarp-Hedin and Hogni set out at night to avenge Gunnar ...
The saga as a literary technique
The saga is not strictly a Norse literary technique. Similar styles around the world were either independently developed or were derived from the style of the Norse sagas. For example:
- The epic Western genre of the Western, a romanticised history of America's west. Some Westerns have plots drawn directly from Norse sagas. An epic Western such as Once Upon a Time in the West may be regarded a revenge saga.
- The Song of Roland as a French saga, as all their Chansons de geste.
- Beowulf and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight as English sagas
- Homer's Odyssey as a Greek saga
- Japan's tales of the samurai
- The science fiction sub-genre Space Opera
- J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings and many of the derivative works in modern fantasy literature
Even some religious writings such as the Bible and the Bhagavad Gita have saga overtones.
Modern parallels
Tolkien's name Gandalf is found in the Edda; indeed, Gandalf is reminiscent of Odin, the principal Norse god, though in the Edda the name belongs to a dwarf, Gandlfr. Tolkien's name Middle-earth comes from an Old and Middle English term for the known world for which cognates exist in Old Norse and other Germanic languages.
Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen drew inspiration from sources including the Norse Saga, Edda, Volsunga saga and the German epic The Nibelungenlied.
Classification of sagas
Norse Sagas are generally classified as:
- Kings' sagas; telling the lives of Scandinavian kings. They were composed in the 12th to 14th centuries.
- Fagrskinna, unknown writer.
- Heimskringla ("Orb of the World") written by Snorri Sturluson. It starts with the arrival of the sir in Scandinavia and ends with the battle at Re 1177.
- Morkinskinna, unknown writer.
- Icelandic sagas (slendingasgur); these are heroic prose narratives written in the 12th to 14th centuries of the great families of Iceland from 930 to 1030. These are the highest form of the classical Icelandic saga writing.
- Bandamanna saga
- Brar saga Snfellsss
- Bjarnar saga Htdœlakappa
- Brennu-Njls saga; considered by some the greatest of Icelandic prose sagas; many translations are available and it is available on the Internet.
- Droplaugarsona saga
- Egils saga Skalla-Grmssonar
- Eirks saga raua
- Eyrbyggja saga
- Finnboga saga ramma
- Fljtsdla saga
- Flamanna saga
- Fstbrœra saga (two versions)
- Gsla saga Srssonar, (two versions) of an outlaw poet.
- Grettis saga
- Grœnlendinga saga
- Gull-ris saga
- Gunnars saga Keldugnpsffls
- Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu
- Hallfrear saga
- Harar saga ok Hlmverja
- Hvarar saga sfirings
- Heiarvga saga
- Hrafnkels_saga
- Hœnsa-ris saga
- Kjalnesinga saga
- Kormks saga
- Krka-Refs saga
- Laxdla saga
- Ljsvetninga saga (three versions)
- Reykdœla saga ok Vga-Sktu
- Svarfdœla saga
- Valla-Ljts saga
- Vatnsdœla saga
- Vga-Glms saga
- Vglundar saga
- Vpnfiringa saga
- orsteins saga hvta
- orsteins saga Su-Hallssonar
- rar saga hreu
- Ǫlkofra saga
- Short stories (slendinga ttir); the material is similar to slendinga sgur, just shorter.
- Arnrs ttr jarlasklds
- Auunar ttr vestfirzka
- Bergba ttr
- Bolla ttr Bollasonar
- Brandkrossa ttr
- Brands ttr ǫrva
- Draumr orsteins Su-Hallssonar
- Egils ttr Su-Hallssonar
- Einars ttr Sklasonar
- Geirmundar ttr
- Gsls ttr Illugasonar
- Grœnlendinga ttr
- Gull-su-rar ttr
- Gunnars ttr irandabana
- Halldrs ttr Snorrasonar inn fyrri
- Halldrs ttr Snorrasonar inn sari
- Helga ttr rissonar
- Hrafns ttr Gurnarsonar
- Hreiars ttr
- Hrmundar ttr halta
- slendings ttr sǫgufra
- vars ttr Ingimundarsonar
- Jǫkuls ttr Basonar
- Kumlba ttr
- Mna ttr sklds
- Odds ttr feigssonar
- Orms ttr Strlfssonar
- ttars ttr svarta
- Sneglu-Halla ttr
- Stǫrnu-Odda draumr
- Stfs ttr inn meiri
- Stfs ttr inn skemmri
- Svaa ttr ok Arnrs kerlingarnefs
- iranda ttr ok rhalls
- orgrms ttr Hallasonar
- orleifs ttr jarlasklds
- ormar ttr
- orsteins ttr Austfirings
- orsteins ttr forvitna
- orsteins ttr Su-Hallssonar
- orsteins ttr skelks
- orsteins ttr stangarhǫggs
- orsteins ttr sǫgufra
- orsteins ttr tjaldstœings
- orsteins ttr uxafts
- orvalds ttr tasalda
- orvalds ttr vfǫrla
- orvarar ttr krkunefs
- rarins ttr Nefjlfssonar
- rarins ttr ofsa
- rarins ttr stuttfeldar
- rhalls ttr knapps
- vi Snorra goa
- Ǫgmundar ttr dytts
- Legendary sagas, blending remote history with myth or legend. The aim is on a lively narrative and entertainment. Scandinavia's pagan past was a proud and heroic history for the Icelanders.
- ns saga bogsveigis
- smundar saga kappabana
- Bsa saga
- Egils saga einhenda ok smundar berserkjabana
- Frijfs saga ins frkna
- Gautreks saga
- Grms saga loinkinna
- Gǫngu-Hrlfs saga
- Hlfdanar saga Brǫnufstra
- Hlfdanar saga Eysteinssonar
- Hlfs saga ok Hlfsrekka
- Hemings ttr slkssonar (two versions)
- Hervarar saga ok Heireks which relates of Gothic wars and the line of Swedish kings.
- Hjlms saga ok Ǫlvis
- Hrlfs saga Gautrekssonar
- Hrlfs saga kraka; which is related to the Old English poem Beowulf.
- Illuga saga Grarfstra
- Ketils saga hœngs
- Norna-Gests ttr
- Ragnars saga lobrkar (two versions)
- Ragnarssona ttr
- Sturlaugs saga starfsama
- Sǫgubrot af fornkonungum
- Sǫrla ttr
- Vǫlsa ttr
- Vǫlsunga saga
- orsteins saga Vkingssonar
- Ǫrvar-Odds saga (two versions)
Others
See also
- Gylfaginning
- Hattatal
- Origins for Beowulf and Hrlf Kraki
- Ragnark
- Viking Age
- Orkneyinga saga (Icelandic)
- Thidreks saga (Norwegian)
- Volsunga saga (Icelandic)
- Ynglinga saga (Icelandic)
- Nart saga (Caucasian)
External links and references
- Free saga e-texts and related materials (http://www.northvegr.org/lore/main.php)
- A Norse saga page (http://www.cyberclip.com/Katrine/NorwayInfo/words/saga.html)
- Viking sagas online (http://home.prcn.org/~saeunn/norse.htm)
- A Norse mythology page (http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu/~cherryne/mythology.html)
- Norse saga resources from the University of Oregon (http://server.fhp.uoregon.edu/norse/)
- (Unknown author, translated by Magnus Magnusson) (1960), Njal's Saga,
- (Unknown author, translated by Seamus Heaney), Beowulf, (2000)
- The icelandic sagas at Nettgfan (http://www.snerpa.is/net/isl/isl.htm)
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