Military history of the Philippines
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List of major battles
The Battle of Mactan
The Battle of Mactan on April 21, 1521 was the first reported resistance of the natives in the Philippines against foreign invaders. Lapu-Lapu, a chieftain of Mactan island, defeated Spanish colonizer Ferdinand Magellan.
On April 27, 1521, warriors of Lapu-Lapu, a chieftain of Mactan, defeated and killed Ferdinand Magellan at the Battle of Mactan.
After Magellan landed on the island of Homonhon March 16, 1521, he parleyed with Rajah Calambu of Limasawa, who guided him to Cebu, on April 7. Through Magellan's interpreter, Enrique, Rajah Humabon of Cebu became an ally. Suitably impressed by Magellan's 12 cannons and 50 cross-bows, Rajah Humabon suggested that Magellan project power to cow Lapu-Lapu of Mactan.
Magellan deployed 48 armored men, less than half his crew, with cross-bows and guns, but could not land on Mactan since the island has a coral shoreline and lacks anchorage suitable for Spanish galleons. His crew had to wade through the surf to make landing. Eight crewmen were killed. Antonio Pigafetta, a supernumerary on the voyage who later returned to Seville, Spain, records that Lapu-Lapu had at least 1500 warriors in the battle.
Magellan was wounded in the leg, while still in the surf. As the crew were retreating, they record that Magellan was surrounded by warriors.
Philippine Revolutionary War
The Philippine Revolution, the first against western colonial rule in Asia, was directed against Spain which had colonized the Philippines since 1565. The Revolution against Spain had two phases: the first from the declaration of defiance against Spanish rule on August 23, 1896 till the conclusion of a truce in December 1897; the second from the return till the outbreak of the Filipino-American War in February 1899.
After over three centuries of Spanish colonial rule characterized by unenlightened government, outright exploitation of the Indios (the term used to apply to the indigenous population of Filipinos), suppression of the mestizos and the insulares (Spaniards born in the Philippines), bleated and half-hearted attempts at reform, and on the part of the governed, countless sporadic and isolated revolts and other forms of resistance, the Philippine Revolution exploded on August 23, 1896, in the event that is commemorated as the "Cry of Pugadlawin." Located in the outskirts of Manila, there assembled on that day members of a secret revolutionary society known as the Katipunan (Kataas-taasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan nang mga Anak ng Bayan -- Highest and Most Respectable Society of the Sons of the People, founded in July 1892), led by its founder, Andres Bonifacio, and there tore up their cedulas (identification receipts issued for payment of taxes) as a symbol of their determination to take up arms against Spain.
The seeds of revolution were, in fact, sown earlier in the nineteenth century when Spain's enforced isolation of the Philippines was shattered with the opening of the country to foreign commerce and the resulting development of an export economy by non-Spanish foreign enterprises (British, American, Chinese). Revolutionary and liberal movements in Europe and elsewhere, in addition to the persistence of friar autocratic rule, brought winds of change in the political climate in the Philippines. The most important event which possibly made the Revolution inevitable was that of February 17, 1872, when three Filipino secular priests, leaders in the movement for the secularization (in effect, nationalization) of Philippine parishes, were executed publicly by garrote for their supposed complicity in a military mutiny at a Cavite arsenal on January 20, 1872. By linking them with the mutiny, the Spanish administration, with the instigation of Spanish friars, found a convenient way of doing away with the troublesome priests, considered by them as filibusteros (anyone who showed any radical tendencies) for demanding clerical equality with the Spanish friars.
The first manifestation of Philippine nationalism followed in the decades of the 1880s and the 1890s, with a reform or propaganda movement, conducted both in Spain and in the Philippines, for the purpose of "propagandizing" Philippine conditions in the hopes that desired changes in the social, political and economic life of the Filipinos would come about through peaceful means. The propaganda movement failed to secure the desired reforms, especially the expulsion of the friars and their replacement by Filipino secular priests and equality before the law between Spaniards and Filipinos, largely because the Spanish friars used their power and resources to thwart the activities of the Filipino ilustrados (educated Filipinos who led the movement).
The revolutionary society, Katipunan, was established, on July 7, 1892, by Filipinos who had given up hope that the Spanish government would administer the affairs of Filipinas in the interests of its subjects—with justice and dignity. A secret association patterned after Freemasonry and the La Liga Filipina (a mutual-aid society founded by the ilustrado Jose Rizal on July 3, 1892), it recruited members in the suburbs of Manila and in the provinces of Central Luzon. By the time of the outbreak of the Revolution in August 1896, membership in the Katipunan has soared to about 30,000, which included some women. The Revolution broke out prematurely on August 23, 1896 because of the untimely discovery by a Spanish friar, on August 19, of the existence of the revolutionary society. The immediate result ofthe outbreak of the Revolution was the institution of a reign of terror by the Spanish authorities in an attempt to frighten the population into submission. Hundreds suspected of joining the Katipunan and the Revolution were arrested and jailed; prominent Filipinos were shipped to exile to the Carolines or the Spanish penal colony in Africa (Fernando Po); and still others were executed, including Jose Rizal, who was shot by musketry on December 30, 1896. The Revolution spread from Manila and Cavite to Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija represented as the eight rays in the Philippine flag.
Andres Bonifacio led the Revolution in its early stages, although he did not excel in the field of battle. Internal rivalry led to the division of the ranks within the Katipunan organization and with the execution of Bonifacio in May 1897 (charged with sedition and treason), leadership of the Revolution fell into the hands of another Katipunan member from Cavite, Emilio Aguinaldo, who distinguished himself in the battlefields in Cavite, at that time the heartland of the Revolution.
The first phase of the Revolution ended inconclusively, with both Filipino and Spanish forces unable to pursue hostilities to a successful conclusion. Consequently, between November 18 and December 15, a truce (in Biak-na-Bato) was concluded between the two sides which resulted in a temporary cessation of hostilities. Aguinaldo agreed to go on temporary exile to Hong Kong after the Spanish government compensated him and his revolutionary junta with P400,000. The truce failed as both sides entered the agreement in bad faith—neither was really willing to abandon hostilities but were biding time and resources to resume the armed conflict.
[1] (http://www.ncca.gov.ph/culture&arts/cularts/heritage/research/research-history.htm)
Independence and the US Occupation
On June 12, 1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo declared the Philippines to be independent of Spain and thus formed the First Philippine Republic, in which he was the President. However, after the Spanish-American War the United States proceeded to lay claim to the Philippines and on February 4, 1899, the Filipino-American War began. The Americans established an occupation government in 1901.
The Philippine Department
Prior to the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, in 1935, the United States Army had maintained a force in the Philippines. This force was composed mostly of native Filipinos and led by US officers, including a US general. This force was the Philippine Department. With the exception of the Philippine Constabulary, the region had no other forces.
The National Defense Act of 1935
In 1935, President-elect Manuel L. Quezon convinced Chief of Staff of the United States Army General Douglas MacArthur to act as the military adviser to the Commonwealth of the Philippines. MacArthur was given the title "Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government" and tasked with establishing a system of national defense, for the Philippines, by 1946. For a time, MacArthur would also act as the Field Marshal of the Philippine Army.
The National Defense Act of 1935 acted upon the advice of the Office of the Military Advisor and the military devoted 1936 to construction, training, and organization. The Philippine Constabulary and the Philippine Department's Philippine Scouts were used to create the core of the new Philippine Army.
World War II Begins
In September of 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan had allied under the Tripartite Pact. In July of 1940, the US banned the shipment of aviation gasoline, to Japan, and by 1941, shipments of scrap iron, steel, gasoline, and other materials had practically ceased. Meanwhile, American economic support to China began to increase.
In April of 1941, Japan and the USSR signed a neutrality pact and Japan increased pressure on the French and Dutch colonies, in Southeast Asia, to cooperate in economic matters. On July 22, 1941, Japanese forces occupied the naval and air bases of southern Indochina. The Philippines were almost completely surrounded.
US Army Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall states, "Adequate reinforcements for the Philippines, at this time, would have left the United States in a position of great peril, should there be a break in the defense of Great Britain."
The Far Eastern Command
On July 25, US Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson requested that US President Franklin D. Roosevelt issue orders calling the military forces of the Commonwealth into active service for the United States. Stimson explains, "All practical steps should be taken to increase the defensive strength of the Philippine Islands."
The following day, President Roosevelt froze all Japanese assets within the United States and issued the orders to absorb the forces of the Philippine Army. That same day, the War Department created the US Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) command, with jurisdiction over the Philippine Department and the military forces of the Commonwealth. At the same time, MacArthur was recalled to active duty and designated as the commander of USAFFE.
Naval Forces
At the outbreak of war, the United States Navy's Asiatic Fleet was stationed at Cavite Naval Base, in Manila Bay. Also stationed here was the Offshore Patrol.
Mobilization and Reinforcement
In July of 1941, MacArthur was informed that it was now the policy of the United States to defend the Philippines, whereas, the goal had formerly been to merely train the Philippine Army. According to Secretary of War Stimson, the success of the B-17 heavy bomber, in the European Theatre of Operations, had convinced the War Department that a striking force of such bombers could be used, against the Japanese, from bases within the Philippines.
MacArthur ordered mobilizaton of the Philippine Army, beginning on September 1. Elements of 10 Filipino reserve divisions were to be called into the service of the United States Army by December 15. It was also necessary to quickly construct housing for 50,000. To each of these divisions were assigned 40 US Army officers and 20 American or Philippine Scout noncommissioned officers, who served as instructors.
The reinforcment of US troops was expected to be completed by April of 1942 and the reinforcement of Filipino troops was expected to be completed by July. Mobilization and assimilation of Filipino forces into the US Army was incomplete (and none of the antitank battalions were ever organized), by the time of the Japanese invasion, in December. However, a force of 100,000+ Filipinos was raised.
On August 14, Brigadier General Leonard T. Gerow argued that the Philippine Department could not resist a Japanese attack. He thus recommended that the Philippines be reinforced with antiaircraft artillery, modern aircraft, and tanks. On August 16, MacArthur was informed that, by September 5, he could expect the 200th Coast Artillery Regiment (AA), the 194th Tank Battalion (less Company B), and a company of the 17th Ordnance Battalion.
On September 5, Army Chief of Staff, General Marshall asked MacArthur if he wanted a National Guard Division, probably the 41st, MacArthur replied that he did not need any additional divisions. MacArthur states, "Equipment and supplies are essential. If these steps are taken, I am confident that no further major reinforcements will be necessary." MacArthur was promished more aircraft, guns, and equipment. Marshall explains, "I have directed that the forces in the Philippines be placed in highest priority for equipment." MacArthur responds, "With such backing, the development of a completely adequate defense force will be rapid."
During September and October, in addition to the above-mentioned reinforcements, MacArthur received the 192nd Tank Battalion and 75 self-propelled 75mm gun mounts.
MacArthur strove to reorganize the Philippine Division, from a square formation, into a triangular formation. This plan involved shipping an American infantry regiment, and 2 artillery battalions, to the Philippines. This would free Philippine Scouts for other positions (such as Harbor Defenses or complementing forces at Forts McKinley and Stotsenburg) and allow USAFFE control of 2 American combat teams. These plans also involved the formation of 4 tactical commands, each of corps level, along with various additional support units.
By November, the War Department had approved additional reinforcements of 1,312 officers, 25 nurses, and 18,047 enlisted soldiers. Ironically, the 34th Infantry Regiment was scheduled to shipout on December 8, 1941.
By December 5, there were 55 ships carrying 100,000 ship-tons of cargo to the Philippines. General Marshall informed Lt. General MacArthur, "You will soon receive all your supporting light artillery (130 75mm guns). You will also receive 72 155mm howitzers."
When the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor took place, there were 52 dive bombers of the 27th Bombardment Group (L), 18 P-40s, 340 vehicles, 48 75mm guns, 3,500,000 rounds of .30 and .50 caliber ammunition, 600 tons of bombs, 9,000 drums of aviation fuel, 2 light field artillery battalions, the ground echelon of the 7th Bombardment Group (H), and various other supplies; all enroute.
(See also: National Defense Act of 1935)
Material and Training Deficiencies
The Philippine Army received clothing that was of poor quality. Their rubber shoes would wear out within 2 weeks. There were shortages of nearly every kind of equipment. There were shortages of blankets, mosquito bars, shelter halves, entrenching tools, gas masks, and helmets.
During August, MacArthur had requested 84,500 Garand rifles, 330 .30-caliber machine guns, 326 .50-caliber machine-guns, 450 37mm guns, 217 81mm mortars, 288 75mm guns, and over 8,000 vehicles. On September 18, he was informed that, because of lend-lease commitments, he would not receive most of these items. As a result, the Philippine Army was stuck using Lee-Enfield and Springfield rifles.
The shipment of supplies depended upon the US Navy limited cargo capacity. In September, the Navy announced its intentions to convert three transports into escort carriers, but, this was not done, after MacArthur observed that the loss of three transports would delay his reinforcements by more than two months.
Then, the army approved requests for 105mm howitzers, 75mm pack howitzers, 75mm guns, .30-caliber machine guns, 37mm guns, 10 250-ft station hospitals, 180 sets of regimental infirmary equipment, jeeps, ambulances, trucks, and sedans. By November, there were 1,100,000 tons of equipment, intended for the Philippines, piled up in US ports. Most of this never reached its destination. Meanwhile, the Navy did manage to transport 1,000,000 gallons of gasoline to the island. Much of this fuel would be stored on the Bataan Peninsula.
In 1941, many Filipino units went into battle without ever having fired their weapons. Many of the troops had never even seen an artillery piece be fired. The 31st Infantry Division (PA) signal officer was unable to establish radio communication with units units in the same camp. Commander of the Philippine 31st Infantry Division, Colonel Bluemel states, "The enlisted men are proficient in only two things, one, when an officer appears, to yell attention in a loud voice, jump up, and salute; two, to demand 3 meals per day."
Training and coordination were further complicated by language barriers. Enlisted Filipinos often spoke one language (such as Bikol or a Visayan language), their officers would speak another (such as Tagalog), and the Americans would speak English. There were some first sergeants and company clerks who could neither read nor write.
The Japanese Decide to Attack
The economic sanctions imposed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands were weakening the Japanese economy. The leaders of Japan were faced with a choice: End the war in China and southeast Asia, so as to end the sanctions, or obtain additional resources by some other means.
The Japanese government decided to seize resources under the control of Britain and the Netherlands. As the United States was their ally, it was decided to attack the American territory of the Philippines as well. Japanese military planners argued that the British (and the USSR should they decide to declare war) would be unable to effectively respond to a Japanese attack, given the threat posed by the Third Reich.
(See Battle of the Philippines (1941-42) for details of successive events.)