International waters
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The terms international waters or transboundary waters apply where any of the following types of bodies of water (or their drainage basins) transcend international boundaries: oceans, large marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi-enclosed regional seas and estuaries, rivers, lakes, groundwater systems (aquifers), and wetlands.[1] (http://www.undp.org/gef/undp-gef_focal_areas_of_action/sub_international_water.html) For oceans and seas, waters outside of national jurisdiction are also referred to as the High Seas.
Marine and freshwater systems, including surface waters and groundwater, constitute the world's water resources, which provide humanity with drinking water, sustenance, income, transportation routes and other amenities. Much of the Earth's water resources is shared by two or more countries (e.g., 261 international river basins comprise 45% of the earth's total land area; 70% of the world's 50 large marine ecosystems, where 95% of the world's fish are caught).
Poorly managed and uncoordinated human activities across sectors are threatening these shared water resources internationally and the livelihoods of billions of people who depend on them. Major threats include sea and land-based pollution, depletion of freshwater resources, habitat loss, introduction of exotic species, and over-harvesting of living and non-living aquatic resources.
Disputes over shared water resources have a long history.[2] (http://freshwater.unep.net/index.cfm?issue=water_transb) Water has been used as a tool and weapon of conflict, access to water has been a source of dispute and contention, and major water development projects have led to violence and civil strife. As a number of international waters agreements demonstrate, shared waters can also be a source of cooperation. This is particularly evident today with the increase in the number of initiatives related to aquifers, lakes, rivers, coasts and ocean management regimes, as well as of international waters institutions committed to bilateral and/or multilateral management of transboundary water resources.
International waters are one of several focal areas for protection and restoration projects supported by the Global Environment Facility as well as bilateral and multilateral development agencies.
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Links and References
International Waters Agreements
Global Agreements
- International Freshwater Treaties Database (http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/projects/internationalDB.html) (freshwater only).
- The Yearkbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development (http://www.greenyearbook.org/index.htm) profiles agreements regarding the Marine Environment (http://www.greenyearbook.org/agree/mar-env/mare-ind.htm), Marine Living Resources (http://www.greenyearbook.org/agree/mar-liv/marl-ind.htm) and Freshwater Resources (http://www.greenyearbook.org/agree/t-fresh/t-f-ind.htm).
- 1972 London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (MARPOL (http://www.londonconvention.org/))
- 1984 United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (LOS (http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm))
- 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of Non-navigational Uses of International Watercourses (CIW (http://www.un.org/law/ilc/texts/nnavtoc.htm)) - not ratified
- Transboundary Groundwater Treaty, Bellagio Draft (http://www.ana.gov.br/guarani/gestao/tratados/The%20Bellagio%20Draft%20Treaty%20(ingles).pdf) - proposed, but not signed
- Other global conventions and treaties with implications for International Waters:
- 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (http://www.ramsar.org/index_very_key_docs.htm)
- 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD (http://www.biodiv.org/convention/articles.asp)), especially Articles 12-13, as related to transboundary aquatic ecosystems
Regional Agreements
At least ten conventions are included within the Regional Seas Program (http://www.unep.ch/seas) of UNEP, including:
- the Atlantic Coast of West and Central Africa (Abidjan Convention (http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/marine.coastal.west.central.africa.1981.html), 1984);
- the North-East Pacific (Antigua Convention);
- the Mediterranean (Barcelona Convention);
- the wider Caribbean (Cartagena Convention);
- the South-East Pacific (Lima Convention (http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/marine.environment.coastal.south.east.pacific.1981.html), 1986);
- the South Pacific (Noumea Convention);
- the East African seaboard (Nairobi Convention (http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/marine.coastal.east.africa.1985.html), 1985);
- the Kuwait region (Kuwait Convention);
- the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (Jeddah Convention).
Addressing regional freshwater issues is the 1992 Helsinki Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (http://www.unece.org/env/water) (UNECE/Helsinki Water Convention)
Waterbody-Specific Agreements
- Baltic Sea (Helsinki Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (http://www.helcom.fi/Convention), 1992)
- Black Sea (Bucharest Convention (http://www.unep.ch/seas/main/blacksea/bsconv.html),1992), see also the Black Sea Commission (http://www.blacksea-commission.org/Main.htm);
- Caspian Sea (Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea (http://www.caspianenvironment.org/reports/Framework_Convention.zip), 2003)
- Lake Tanganyika (Convention for the Sustainable Management of Lake Tanganyika (http://www.ltbp.org/LGLCON.HTM), 2003)
International Waters Institutions
Freshwater Institutions
- The UNESCO International Hydrological Programme(IHP (http://www.unesco.org/water/ihp))
- The International Joint Commission between Canada and USA (IJC-CMI (http://www.ijc.org))
- The International Network of Basin Organizations (INBO (http://www.inbo-news.org))
- The International Shared Aquifer Resource Management (ISARM (http://www.iah.org/isarm)) project
- The International Water Boundary Commission between Mexico and USA (IWBC, US Section (http://www.ibwc.state.gov/wad/storage.htm))
- The International Water Management Institute (IWMI (http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org))
- The World Conservation Union Water and Nature Initiative (WANI (http://www.waterandnature.org))
Marine Institutions
- The International Maritime Organization (IMO (http://www.imo.org))
- The UNEP Regional Seas Programme (http://www.unep.ch/regionalseas)
- The UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC (http://ioc.unesco.org))
- The International Ocean Institute (IOI (http://www.ioinst.org/))
- The World Conservation Union Global Marine Program (GMP (http://www.iucn.org/themes/marine/))
International Waters Resources on the Web
- The GEF International Waters Resource Centre (http://www.iwlearn.net) (GEF IWRC)
- The Integrated Management of Transboundary Waters in Europe (TransCat (http://transcat.isq.pt))
- The International Water Law Project (http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org)
- The International Water Resources Association (http://www.iwra.siu.edu) (IWRA)
- FAO
- Ocean Atlas (http://www.oceansatlas.com)
- Transboundary Marine Protected Areas (http://www.oceansatlas.com/servlet/CDSServlet?status=ND0xODYxNCY3PWVuJjYxPWN0biY2NT1pbmZv) (MPAs) article
- OneFish (http://www.onefish.org) fisheries research portal
- Regional Fisheries Bodies (http://www.fao.org/fi/body/rfb/index.htm) of the World portal
- The UNDP-GEF article describing international waters,[3] (http://www.undp.org/gef/undp-gef_focal_areas_of_action/sub_international_water.html) from which this article has been adapted.
- UNEP freshwater thematic portal on transboundary waters (http://freshwater.unep.net/index.cfm?issue=water_transb)
- UNESCO thematic portals for oceans (http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanportal), water (http://www.unesco.org/water), coasts and small islands (http://www.unesco.org/csi)fr:Eaux internationales