The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism
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The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism is a book written by Maximilian Weber, a German economist and sociologist in the early 20th century. Note that the original edition was in German. An English translation was made in 1951 and several editions were released till today.
It was his second major work on the sociology of religion, after The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
Weber focused on those aspects of Chinese society that were different from those of Western Europe and Puritanism, and posed a question why capitalism did not develop in China. He concentrated on early period of Chinese history (Hundred Schools of Thought, Warring States Period), during which major Chinese schools of thoughts (Confucianism, taoism) were invented.
The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism presents the following views:
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Early history
By 200 B.C. the Chinese state has developed from a loose federation of feudal states to the unified empire with patrimonal rule. See the Warring States Period for more details.
Cities
Similar to Europe, Chinese cities were founded as forts or leader's residences and were the centers of trade and crafts.
However, they never received political autonomy and its citizens had no special political rights or privileges. This is due to strengths of kinship ties, which stems from religious beliefs (in ancestral spirits). The guilds likewise competed against each other for the favour of the Emperor, never uniting in order to fight for more rights.
Therefore, the resident of Chinese cities never constitutes a separate status class like the residents of European cities.
Officialdom
Early unification of the state and establishment of central officialdom meant that the focus for power struggle turned from the distribution of land to the distribution of offices, which with their fees and taxes were the most prominent source of income for the holder (who often pocketed up to 50% of income).
The imperial government depended on the services of those officials, not on the service of military (knights), like in Europe.
Literati and confucian orthodoxy
Weber emphasized that confucianism tolerated the great number of popular cults without effort to systematize them as a religious doctrine. Instead of metaphysical speculation it taught adjustment to the world. The 'superior' man (literati) should stay away from the pursuit of wealth (though not from the wealth itself). Therefore, becoming a civil servant was preferred to becoming a businessman and granted a much higher status class.
Religious organisation
Chinese civilisation had no religious prophecy nor powerful priesthood social class.
The emperor was the high priest of state religion and the supreme ruler, but the number of popular cults were also tolerated (however the political ambitions of their priests were curtailed). This forms a sharp contrast with medieval Europe, where the Church curbed the power of secular rulers and the same faith was professed by rulers and common folk alike.
State cult and popular religiosity
According to Confucianism, the worship of great deities was the affair of the state, ancestral worship is required of all, and the multitude of popular cult is tolerated. Confucianism tolerated magic and mysticism as long as they were useful tools for controlling the masses; it denounced them them as heresy and suppressed them when they threatened the established order (hence the opposition to Buddhism).
Note that in this context, Confucianism can be referred to as the state cult, and Taoism as the popular religion.
Social structure and the capitalist economy
Weber argued that while several factors were good for development of capitalism economy (long periods of peace, improved control of rivers, population growth, freedom to acquire land and move outside of native community, freedom of choosing the occupation) they were outweighed by others (mostly stemming from religion):
- technical inventions were opposed on the basis of religion (disturbance of ancestral spirit leading to bad luck), instead of changing the world, adjusting oneself to it was preferred
- sale of land was often prohibited or made very difficult
- extended kinship groups (based on religion stressing the importance of family ties and ancestry) protected its members against economic adversities, therefore discouraging payment of debts and work discipline and increases of work effectiveness
- those kinship prevented the development of urban status class, hindered legal developments like creation of legal institutions, codification of laws and jurist status class
Confucianism and Puritanism
According to Weber, Confucianism and Puritanism represent two comprehensive but mutually exclusive types of rationalisation, each attempting to order human life upon certain ultimate religious beliefs. Both encouraged sobriety and self control and were compatible with the accumulation of wealth.
However, the Confucianism aimed at the attaining and preserving "a cultured status postition" and used as means the adjustment to the world, education, self-perfection, politeness and familial piety. Puritanism used those means in order to create a "tool of God", creating a person that would serve the God and master the world. The intensity of belief and enthusiasm for action were alien to the esthetic values of Confucianism. Therefore, Weber states that it was the difference in prevailing mentality that contributed to the development of capitalism in the West and the absence of it in China.