Prefetch input queue
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Most modern processors load their instructions some clock cycles before they execute them. This is achieved by pre-loading machine code from memory into a prefetch input queue (PIQ).
This behaviour only applies to von Neumann computers (that is, not Harvard architecture computers) that can run self-modifying code and have some sort of instruction pipelining. Nearly all computers, except for very slow ones, fulfill these three requirements.
Usually, the prefetching behavior of the PIQ is invisible to the programming model of the CPU. However, there are some circumstances where the behavior of PIQ is visible, and needs to be taken into account by the programmer.
When the x86-processor changes mode from realmode to protected mode and vice versa, the PIQ has to be flushed, or else the CPU will continue to translate the machine code as if it was written in its last mode. If the PIQ is not flushed, the processor might translate its codes wrong and generate an invalid instruction exception.
When executing self-modifying code, a change in the processor code immediately in front of the current location of execution might not change how the processor interprets the code, as it is already loaded into its PIQ. It simply executes its old copy already loaded in the PIQ instead of the new and altered version of the code in its RAM and/or cache.
This behavior of the PIQ can be used to determine if code is being executed inside a emulator or directly on the hardware of a real CPU. Most emulators will probably never simulate this behaviour. If the PIQ-size is zero (changes in the code always affect the state of the processor immediately), it can be deduced that the code is being executed in an emulator.
x86 example code
code_starts_here: mov eax, ahead mov [eax], 0x9090 ahead: jmp near to_the_end ; Some other code to_the_end:
This self-modifying program will overwrite the jmp to_the_end with two NOPs (which is encoded as 0x9090). The jump jmp near to_the_end is assembled into two bytes of machinecode, so the two NOPs will just overwrite this jump and nothing else. (That is, the jump is replaced with an do-nothing-code.)
Because the machine code of the jump is already read into the PIQ, and probably also already executed by the processor (superscalar processors execute several instructions at once, but they "pretend" that they don't because of the need for backward compatibility), the change of the code will not have any change of the execution flow.
Example program to detect the size of the PIQ
This is an example NASM-syntax self-modifying x86-assembly algorithm that determines the size of the PIQ:
code_starts_here: xor cx, cx ; zero register cx xor ax, ax ; zero register ax mov dx, cs ; change dx to edx for protected mode. mov [code_segment], dx ; "calculate" codeseg in the far jump below (edx here too) around: cmp ax, 1 ; check if ax has been alterd je found_size mov [nop_field+cx], 0x90 ; 0x90 = opcode "nop" (NO oPeration) inc cx db 0xEA ; 0xEA = opcode "far jump" dw flush_queue ; should be followed by offset (rm = "dw", pm = "dd") code_segment: dw 0 ; and then the code segment (calculated above) flush_queue: mov [nop_field+cx], 0x40 ; 0x40 = opcode "inc ax" (INCrease ax) nop_field: nop times 256 jmp around found_size: ; ; register cx now contains the size of the PIQ ; this code is for realmode, but it could easily be changed into ; running for protected mode as well. just change the "dw" for ; the offset to "dd". you need also change dx to edx at the top as ; well. (dw and dx = 16 bit addressing, dd and edx = 32 bit addressing) ;
What this code does is basically that it changes the execution flow, and determines by brute force how large the PIQ is. "How far away do I have to change the code in front of me for it to affect me?" If it is too near (it is already in the PIQ) the update will not have any affect. If it is far enough, the change of the code will affect the program and the program has then found the size of the processors PIQ. If this code is being executed in protected mode, the operating system must not make any context switch, or else this program may return the wrong value.