Individualism

Individualism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, belief in the primary importance of the individual and in the virtues of self-reliance and personal independence. It embraces opposition to authority and to all manner of controls over the individual, especially when exercised by the state or society. It is thus directly opposed to collectivism. It may derive from a belief in solipsism.

In political philosophy, the theory of government according to which the good of the state consists in the well-being and free initiative of its individual members. From this standpoint, as contrasted with that of the various forms of collectivism which subordinate the individual to the society, the society as such is an artificial unity. The term has also been used to describe individual initiative and freedom of the individual in general.

In practice individualism is chiefly concerned to oppose the concentration of commercial and industrial enterprise in the hands of the state and the municipality. The principles on which this opposition is based are mainly two: that popularly elected representatives are not likely to have the qualifications or the sense of responsibility required for dealing with the multitudinous enterprises and the large sums of public money involved, and that the health of the state depends on the exertions of individuals for their personal benefit.

Individualism is, however, by no means identical with egoism, though egoism is always individualistic. An individualist may also be a conscientious altruist: he is by no means hostile to or aloof from society (any more than the collectivist is necessarily hostile to the individual), but he is opposed to interference with individual liberty wherever, in his opinion, it can be avoided.

Societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic and arguably self-interested) rather than "other-regarding" (group-orientated and group or society minded) behaviour. There is also a distinction relevant in this context between guilt societies (internal reference standard) and shame societies (e.g. Japan) with an external reference standard and where people look to their peers for feedback as to whether an action is acceptable.

The extent to which society or groups are individualistic can vary from time to time and from country to country. For example, Japanese society is more group oriented (e.g. decisions tend to be taken by groups rather than individuals) and it has been argued that "personalities are less developed" (than is usual in the West). The USA is usually thought of as being at the individualistic (its detractors would say atomistic) end of the spectrum, whereas European societies are more inclined to believe in public-spiritedness, state spending, and public initiatives.

John Kenneth Galbraith made a classic distinction between private affluence and public squalor in the USA and private squalor and public affluence in, for example, Europe, and there is a correlation between individualism and degrees of public sector intervention and taxation.

Individualism is often contrasted with either totalitarianism or collectivism, but in fact there is a spectrum of behaviours ranging at the societal level from highly individualistic societies (e.g. the USA) through mixed societies (a term the UK has used in the post-WW2 period) to collectivist. Also, many collectivists (particularly supporters of anarchism or libertarian socialism) point to the enormous differences between liberty-minded collectivism and totalitarian practices.

Individualism, sometimes closely associated with certain variants of individualist anarchism, libertarianism or classical liberalism, typically takes it for granted that individuals know best and that public authority or society has the right to interfere in the person's decision-making process only when a very compelling need to do so arises (and maybe not even in those circumstances). This type of argument is often observed in relation to policy debates regarding regulation of industries.

At the time of the formation of the United States, many of its citizens had fled from state or religious oppression in Europe and were influenced by the egalitarian and fraternal ideals that later found expression in the French revolution. Such ideas influenced the framers of the U.S. Constitution (the Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans) who believed that the government should seek to protect individual rights in the constitution itself; this idea later led to the Bill of Rights.

Individualism has negative connotations in certain societies and environments where it is associated with selfishness. For example, individualism is highly frowned upon in Japan where self-interested behaviour is traditionally regarded as a kind of betrayal of those to whom one has obligations (e.g. family and firm). The absence of universal health care in the United States, which traces back to a belief in individual (rather than societal) responsibility, is widely criticised in Europe and other countries where universal health care (usually funded through general taxation) is seen as protecting individuals from the vagaries of health problems; health care is seen in Europe as a classic case where insurance at a societal level is right and sensible.

Proponents of such public initiatives and social responsibility argue that their policies are beneficial for the individual, and that excessive individualism may actually hurt the individuals themselves. Opponents hold that such public initiatives may have unintended consequences beyond the issues they are intended to address.

Capitalism and Individualism

Karl Marx argued that the structure of production (the structure of the economy) determined the structure of society, and there is little doubt that many evolving trends in the economy (often linked to the evolution of industry and trade) influence society and the way people interact. For example, the emergence of automobile and air transportation, together with the speed of economic change, has coincided with many important changes in interpersonal and family relationship patterns. Marx called this theory historical materialism.

Critics of modern capitalism sometimes argue that capitalism is not based on individuals but largely on firms and institutions, and that individuals' roles are largely determined by these institutions. However, compared to various forms of political collectivism, capitalism is usually still considered individualistic since participation in these institutions is voluntary and an individual choice.

References

Adam Smith The Wealth of Nations
Karl Popper The Open Society and Its Enemies
Ayn Rand The Virtue of Selfishness
Alan Waterman The Psychology of Individualism
Lawrence Kohlberg Six Stages of Moral Development

Individualism

Capitalism and Individualism

References

See also

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