Legend:  Definition
 Field
Listing  Rank
Order
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Background:
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Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed
until the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators
and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the
Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic
Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was indeed
a continent and not just a group of islands. Several exploration
"firsts" were achieved in the early 20th century. Following World
War II, there was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent.
A number of countries have set up year-round research stations on
Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims, but no other country
recognizes these claims. In order to form a legal framework for
the activities of nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty
was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing
territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961.
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Location:
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continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle |
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Geographic coordinates:
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90 00 S, 0 00 E |
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Map references:
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Antarctic
Region |
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Area:
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total: 14 million sq km
note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North
America, and South America, but larger than Australia and the subcontinent
of Europe
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72 million
sq km ice-covered) (est.) |
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Area - comparative:
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slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US |
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Land boundaries:
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0 km
note: see entry on International disputes |
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Coastline:
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17,968 km |
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Maritime claims:
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none; 20 of 27 Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims
to Antarctic territory (although Russia and the US have reserved
the right to do so) and do not recognize the claims of the other
nations; also see the Disputes - international entry |
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Climate:
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severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance
from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because
of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate
climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and
average slightly below freezing |
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Terrain:
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about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to
nearly 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern
Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts
of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along
about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute
11% of the area of the continent |
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Elevation extremes:
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lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,555 m
highest point: Vinson Massif 4,897 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden
in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest
ice yet discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under seawater
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Natural resources:
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iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals,
and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial
quantities; none presently exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have
been taken by commercial fisheries |
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Land use:
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arable land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) (1998 est.) |
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Irrigated land:
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0 sq km (1998 est.) |
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Natural hazards:
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katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior;
frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms
form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism
on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other
seismic activity rare and weak; large icebergs may calve from ice
shelf |
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Environment - current issues:
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in 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the antarctic ozone hole
was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers;
researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light coming
through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an antarctic fish lacking
hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled
antarctic marine plants; in 2002, significant areas of ice shelves
disintegrated in response to regional warming |
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Geography - note:
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the coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent;
during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South
Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly
uninhabitable
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Population:
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no indigenous inhabitants, but there are seasonally staffed research
stations
note: approximately 27 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic
Treaty, send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and year-round
research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the population
of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its
nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered
by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately 4,000 in summer
to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel including
ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research are present in
the waters of the treaty region; summer (January) population - 3,687
total; Argentina 302, Australia 201, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria
16, Chile 352, China 70, Finland 11, France 100, Germany 51, India
60, Italy 106, Japan 136, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60,
Norway 40, Peru 28, Poland 70, Russia 254, South Africa 80, Spain
43, Sweden 20, UK 192, US 1,378 (1998-99); winter (July) population
- 964 total; Argentina 165, Australia 75, Brazil 12, Chile 129,
China 33, France 33, Germany 9, India 25, Japan 40, South Korea
14, NZ 10, Poland 20, Russia 102, South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248
(1998-99); year-round stations - 42 total; Argentina 6, Australia
4, Brazil 1, Chile 4, China 2, Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India
1, Italy 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia
6, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (1998-99);
summer-only stations - 32 total; Argentina 3, Australia 4, Bulgaria
1, Chile 7, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 3, NZ 1, Peru 1, Russia 3,
Sweden 2, UK 5 (1998-99); in addition, during the austral summer
some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps,
summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support
of research (July 2003 est.)
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Country name:
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conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Antarctica |
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Government type:
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Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December
1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal
framework for the management of Antarctica. The 24th Antarctic Treaty
Consultative Meeting was held in Russia in July 2001. At the end
of 2001, there were 45 treaty member nations: 27 consultative and
18 non-consultative. Consultative (voting) members include the seven
nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory
(some claims overlap) and 20 nonclaimant nations. The US and Russia
have reserved the right to make claims. The US does not recognize
the claims of others. Antarctica is administered through meetings
of the consultative member nations. Decisions from these meetings
are carried out by these member nations (within their areas) in
accordance with their own national laws. The year in parentheses
indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative
(voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original
1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia,
Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative
nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1998) China (1985),
Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy
(1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989),
Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988),
Uruguay (1985), and the US. Non-consultative (nonvoting) members,
with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada
(1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark
(1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary
(1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971),
Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), Ukraine (1992),
and Venezuela (1999). Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes
only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited,
but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific
research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific
investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange
of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other
international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute,
or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted
while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions
or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under the
treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south
and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers
have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and
may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance
notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel
must be given; Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers
and scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative
meetings take place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states
will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are
contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully
by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12,
13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty
among involved nations. Other agreements - some 200 recommendations
adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments
include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and Flora (1964) which were
later incorporated into the Environmental Protocol; Convention for
the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation
of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources
agreement was signed in 1988 but remains unratified; the Protocol
on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4
October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement
provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through
five specific annexes: 1) marine pollution, 2) fauna and flora,
3) environmental impact assessments, 4) waste management, and 5)
protected area management; it prohibits all activities relating
to mineral resources except scientific research. |
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Legal system:
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Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative
member nations. Decisions from these meetings are carried out by
these member nations (within their areas) in accordance with their
own national laws. US law, including certain criminal offenses by
or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply extra-territorially.
Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic
Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil
and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized
by regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or birds;
the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into
specially protected areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants;
and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica.
Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of
up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The National Science
Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities.
Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as
amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica
to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department
of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other
nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information,
contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science
Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030,
or visit their website at www.nsf.gov.
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Economy - overview:
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Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for
the limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 (1
July-30 June) reported landing 112,934 metric tons. Unregulated
fishing, particularly of tooth fish, is a serious problem. Allegedly
illegal fishing in antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure
(by France and Australia) of at least eight fishing ships. The Convention
on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources determines
the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 12,248
tourists visited in the 2000-01 antarctic summer, down from the
14,762 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers
on 21 commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that
made trips during the summer. Most tourist trips lasted approximately
two weeks.
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Ports and harbors:
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there are no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal
stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred
from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters; a few
stations have a basic wharf facility; US coastal stations include
McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E), Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government
use only except by permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System");
all ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article
7, Antarctic Treaty; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent
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Airports:
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30
note: 30 stations, operated by 16 national governments party
to the Antarctic Treaty, have aircraft landing facilities for either
helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate
two additional aircraft landing facilities; helicopter pads are
available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice,
blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing
aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between
2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length,
3 are less than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow
surface skiways, limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft,
are available at another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than
3 km in length, 3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between
1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and 4 are
of unknown length; aircraft landing facilities generally subject
to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal
and geographic conditions; aircraft landing facilities do not meet
ICAO standards; advance approval from the respective governmental
or nongovernmental operating organization required for landing;
landed aircraft are subject to inspection in accordance with Article
7, Antarctic Treaty (2002) |
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Airports - with unpaved runways:
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total: 19
over 3,047 m: 6
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 5 (2002)
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 |
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Heliports:
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27 stations have helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2002)
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Military - note:
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the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature,
such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications,
the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type
of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment
for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
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Disputes - international:
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Antarctic Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in
Government type entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina,
Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and UK; the US and most other
states do not recognize the territorial claims of other states and
have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right
to do so); no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees
west and 150 degrees west; several states with land claims in Antarctica
have expressed their intention to submit data to the UN Commission
on the Limits of the Continental Shelf to extend their continental
shelf claims to adjoining undersea ridges
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This page was last updated on 18 December,
2003
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