Academic Kids - New pages [en]

Academic Kids - New pages [en] 2009-12-29T15:04:59Z From Academic Kids MediaWiki 1.4.7 Christmas around the world 2009-11-24T23:04:49Z 2009-11-24T23:04:49 2009-11-24T23:04:49Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Redirect|Christmas around the world||Christmas Around the World (Bradley Joseph album)}} {{Refimprove|date=November 2007}} The [[Christmas]] season is celebrated in different ways around the world, varying by country and region. == Asia == ===China, Hong Kong and Macau=== [[Image:TSTNewWorldCentre.jpg|thumb|left|A large artificial [[Christmas tree]] outside a shopping mall in [[Hong Kong]]]] In [[China|Mainland China]], [[December 25]] is not a legal holiday. The small percentage of Chinese citizens who consider themselves Christians unofficially, and usually privately, observe Christmas.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://christmas.lovetoknow.com/How_Christmas_Started_in_China How Christmas Started in China - LoveToKnow Christmas]</ref> Many other individuals celebrate Christmas-like festivities even though they do not consider themselves Christians. Many customs, including sending [[Christmas cards|cards]], exchanging gifts, and hanging stockings are very similar to Western celebrations.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Both [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] designate Christmas as a public holiday on December 25. Both are former [[colony|colonies]] of Western powers with (nominal) [[Christian]] cultural heritage. However, commercial Christmas decorations, signs, and other symbolic items have become increasingly prevalent during the month of December in large urban centers of mainland China, reflecting a cultural interest in this Western phenomenon, and, sometimes, as part of retail marketing campaigns. ===Korea=== [[Image:Seoul Cheonggyecheon at night.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The new Cheonggyecheon river in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]] at Christmastime]] [[South Korea]] recognizes Christmas as a national holiday. Christian and non-Christian Koreans engage in some holiday customs such as gift-giving, sending Christmas cards, and setting up decorated trees in their homes; children, especially, appear to have embraced [[Santa Claus]], whom they call ''Santa Haraboji'' (Grandfather Santa) in [[Korean language|Korean]], Local radio stations play holiday music on Christmas Day and a few days before, while television stations are known to air Christmas films and cartoon specials popular in the Western countries. In addition, increasing numbers of stores and buildings are displaying Christmas decorations. As in the West, Christian churches in Korea hold Christmas pageants and conduct special services on [[Christmas Eve]] and [[Christmas Day]]. Young people especially enjoy the fellowship these observances provide; after the Christmas Eve services, for example, they go caroling to the homes of older church members, where they are usually treated to hot drinks and snacks. [[South Korea]] is the only [[East Asian]] country to recognize [[Christmas]] as a national holiday. ===India=== Being a British colony till 1947, many British traditions stayed on in India<ref>http://www.theholidayspot.com/christmas/worldxmas/india.htm</ref>.Christmas is a state holiday in [[India]], though only 2.3% <ref>http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/religion.aspx</ref> of the population is actually Christian. Sincere devotees attend the church services. In many of the schools that are run by the Christian [[missionary|missionaries]], the children actively participate in the programmes. Christmas is officially celebrated at the [[Rashtrapati Bhavan]] by the [[President of India]]. The celebrations continue and merge with New Year's celebrations. Christmas often coincides with the [[Winter Solstice]] as celebrated in India ([[Sankranthi|Makar Sakranti]]). In India, most educational institutions have a mid-academic year vacation, sometimes called Christmas vacation, beginning shortly before Christmas and ending a few days after [[New Year's Day]]. Christmas is also known as ''bada din'' (the big day). Commercialization and open markets are however bringing more secular Christmas celebration to the public sphere, even though it is not widely celebrated as a religious holiday. Christmas is particularly well celebrated in Bengal and South India where the Christian population is relatively high. ===Israel=== [[Israel]] is a [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Jewish state|state]] so the Jewish majority does not celebrate Christmas. They celebrate [[Hanukkah]] instead. In the [[Palestinian territories]] and in some areas under Israeli control a [[Christian Palestinians|Christian]] minority exists. They celebrate Christmas. This is especially prevalent in [[Bethlehem]] and [[Nazareth]]. ===Japan=== Encouraged by the commercial sector, the secular celebration of Christmas is popular in [[Japan]], though Christmas is not a national holiday. A unique feature of Christmas in Japan is the Japanese type of [[Christmas cake]], often a white whipped cream cake with strawberries. [[Image:ARTELLIGENT CHRISTMAS Roppngi Hills 2006.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Christmas lights in [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]]] The first recorded Christmas in Japan was celebrated with a [[Mass]] held by [[Jesuit]] missionaries in [[Yamaguchi Prefecture]] in 1552, although some believe that unrecorded celebrations were held prior to this date, starting in 1549 when [[Saint Francis Xavier]] arrived in Japan to begin missionary work. Starting with the expulsion of missionaries in 1587, Christianity was banned throughout Japan beginning in 1612, a few years into the [[Edo Period]], and the public practice of Christmas subsequently ceased. However, a small enclave of Japan Christians, known as [[Kakure Kirishitan]] ("hidden Christians"), continued to practice underground over the next 250 years, and Christianity along with Christmas practices reemerged at the beginning of the [[Meiji period]]. Influenced by American customs, Christmas parties were held and presents were exchanged. The practice slowly spread in major cities, but its proximity to the [[Japanese New Year|New Year]]'s celebrations makes it a smaller focus of attention. During [[World War II]], all celebrations and customs, especially those from America, were suppressed. From the 1960s, with the aid of a rapidly expanding economy, and influenced by American TV dramas, Christmas became popular, but mostly not as a religious occasion. For many Japanese, celebrating Christmas is similar to participating in a [[matsuri]], where participants often do not consider which [[kami]] is being celebrated, but believe that the celebration is a tribute nevertheless. From the 1970s onwards, many songs and TV drama series presented Christmas from a lover's point of view, for example '[[Last Christmas]]' by [[Exile (Japanese band)|Exile]]. The birthday of the current emperor, [[Akihito]], on [[December 23]] is a national holiday. Shortly thereafter businesses close for the New Year's holidays, usually reopening on the first weekday after January 3. ===Lebanon=== [[Image:Xmas in Downtown Beirut.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Christmas tree in Downtown [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]] (notice mosque in the back)]] Christmas is a state holiday in Lebanon. Most Lebanese Muslims celebrate Christmas with Christian friends. A poll showed that around two thirds of the population celebrate Christmas, while only 45% of the population is Christian. Commercialization and open markets are bringing a more secular celebration of Christmas to the public. Churches are open all night for praying and people go to visit friends and families, often to villages in the mountains. Christmas concerts are popular, not to forget to mention the wide popularity of both local and western Christmas Carols. Prayers and carols start to be said and sung around mid-December and continue till the New Year's Eve. Internationally famous fashion designer, [[Elie Saab]], donates a giant Christmas tree of 25m high for public display every year in Downtown Beirut. [[Image:Xmas Lights in Achrafiyeh.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Christmas lights in Charles Malek Street in Achrafiyeh, [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]]]] It is recognized that Christmas controversies such as the replacement of the greeting "Merry Christmas" by "Happy Holidays" or the usage of the word [[Xmas]] "taking Christ out of Christmas" are popularly criticized, Christmas in Lebanon is a purely Religious holiday where everybody prays, as well as being the Gift Giving season. Lebanese Christmas food is a mixture of European and [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle Eastern fare]], for example, [[Tabbouleh]], [[Kibbeh]], [[Domestic turkey|Turkey]] and [[wine]], and for dessert a "[[buche de Noel|buche de Noël]]". Most of Christmas Greetings are spoken in French like "[[Joyeux Noel|Joyeux Noël]]" or English. [[Christmas lights]] fill the roads. Houses are also decorated and beneath the Christmas tree, families place a [[nativity scene]] or crêche with a unique style, representing Jesus, St. Mary, St Joseph, the Three Kings, shepherds men and miniature animals. ===Malaysia=== [[Christmas]] is a public holiday in [[Malaysia]], however, much of the public celebration is commercial in nature and has no overt religious overtones. Occasionally, Christian activist groups do buy newspaper advertorials on [[Christmas]] or [[Easter]] but this is largely only allowed in English newspapers and permission is not given every year. The advertorials themselves are usually indirect statements. In 2004, the government organized a national-level Christmas celebration but allegedly imposed an unofficial ban on all Christian religious symbols and hymns that specifically mention Jesus Christ.<ref>[http://www.malaysiakini.com/news/32072 Rev Lim: Excluding carols with Jesus' name is scandalous]</ref> The event was jointly organised by the Arts, Culture and Heritage ministry, the government of the state of Selangor and the Christian Federation of Malaysia (CFM). It has been reported that the Sultan of Selangor and his consort, the Prime Minister as well as assorted cabinet ministers will be in attendance. It will also be televised on TV in a majority Muslim country. OC Lim, a former lawyer turned [[Jesuit]] priest and director of the Catholic Research Centre (also assistant parish priest of [[St. Francis Xavier]]'s Church) has lodged a formal complaint. He has also stated that "To exclude (such) carols and to use (Christmas) for political gain is outrageous, scandalous and sacrilegious." He also said "To call it a cultural event (as rationalised by Christian politicians who are more politician than Christian) is to downgrade Jesus to a cultural sage such as Confucius." CFM general secretary Rev Dr Hermen Shastri stated that the government wanted "nothing that insults Islam" during the open house. Arts, Culture and Heritage Minister Dr Rais Yatim later denied that any such ban had been "issued officially or unofficially". He also added that there is "nothing wrong in singing songs such as Silent Night and Merry Christmas" as they are "joyous songs for the festival". Lee Min Choon, legal advisor to the CFM and the National Evangelical Christian Fellowship issued a statement which said "It means that churches can celebrate Christmas as they have been doing all along. Otherwise, the very meaning of the occasion will be lost." "Now, everybody should take the government at its word and celebrate Christmas the way they normally celebrate and express their religious faith." ===Pakistan=== [[Image:Karachi St. Patricks Cathedral.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Saint Patrick's Cathedral, Karachi]]]] In [[Pakistan]], December 25 is a public holiday because Christians constitute approximately 1 percent of the population, In Christian households, cards and presents are exchanged. People wear their best new clothes and visit friends houses. ===Philippines=== {{main|Christmas in the Philippines}} [[File:Parols For Sale.png|thumb|250px|left|[[Parol]]s are an iconic display in the Philippines during its long Christmas season]] [[Image:UST at Christmas2007.jpg|thumb|right|260px|The [[UST|University of Santo Tomas]] - UST Main Building illuminating the nights of December 2007]] Christmas in the [[Philippines]], one of two predominantly Catholic countries in Asia (the other one being [[East Timor]]), is one of the biggest holidays on the calendar. The country has earned the distinction of celebrating the world's longest Christmas season, with Christmas carols are heard as early as September and the season lasting up until Epiphany. The [[Philippines]] has earned the distinction of celebrating the world's longest Christmas season. Although faint traces of the holiday arise beginning from early [[September]], it is traditionally ushered in by the nine-day dawn [[Mass]]es that start on Dec. 16. Known as the ''Misas de Aguinaldo'' (Gift Masses) or ''[[Misa de Gallo]]'' (Rooster's Mass) in the traditional [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. These Masses are more popularly known in [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] as the ''Simbang Gabi''. Christmas Eve on December 24 is the much-anticipated "''noche buena''" &mdash; the traditional Christmas feast after the midnight mass. Family members dine together on traditional ''noche buena'' fare, which includes the ''[[queso de bola|quéso de bóla]]'' ("ball cheese", usually [[edam cheese]]) and ''[[jamón]]'' (Christmas ham). Usually, aside from the already [[Holidays in the Philippines|legal holidays]] which are [[Rizal Day]] ([[December 30]]) and New Year's Eve ([[December 31]]), other days in close proximity such as Christmas Eve ([[December 24]]), ''Niños Innocentes'' ([[December 28]]), and the Epiphany (traditionally, [[January 6]]) are also declared as non-working days. In Asia, Christmas is also the liveliest in the Philippines, since the country is one of the few predominantly Christian nation in the continent besides [[Russia]], [[East Timor]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Armenia]]. As in many [[East Asia]]n countries, secular Christmas displays are common both in business establishments and in public, including lights, [[Christmas trees]], depictions of [[Santa Claus]] (despite the warm climate), and Christmas greetings in [[English Language|English]] and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], as well as in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and other [[Philippine languages]] and dialects. Occasionally such displays are left in place even in summer for example the ''[[parol]]'' representing the "[[Star of Bethlehem]]" which led the [[Three Kings]] to the newborn Baby [[Jesus]]. In the capital [[Manila]], Christmas Day is the start of the annual [[Metro Manila Film Festival]] during which locally produced films are featured in the city's theatres. For Filipinos, [[Christmas Eve]] ("Bisperas ng Pasko"/Spanish: Vísperas de la Navidad) on December 24 is celebrated with the Midnight Mass, and immediately after, the much-anticipated Noche Buena – the traditional Christmas Eve feast. Family members dine together around 12 midnight on traditional [[Noche Buena]] fare, which includes: [[queso de bola]] (Spanish: "ball of cheese"; this is actually [[edam cheese]]), "Tsokolate" (a hot chocolate drink) and [[jamon|jamón]] (Christmas ham). Some would also open presents at this time. On December 31, [[New Year's Eve]] ("Bisperas ng Bagong Taon"), Filipino families gather for the Media Noche or midnight meal – a feast that is also supposed to symbolize their hopes for a prosperous New Year. In spite of the yearly ban on firecrackers, many Filipinos in the Philippines still see these as the traditional means to greet the New Year. The loud noises and sounds of merrymaking are not only meant to celebrate the coming of the New Year but are also supposed to drive away bad spirits. Safer methods of merrymaking include banging on pots and pans and blowing on car horns. Folk beliefs also include encouraging children to jump at the stroke of midnight so that they would grow up tall, displaying circular fruit and wearing clothes with dots and other circular designs to symbolize money, eating twelve grapes at 12 midnight for good luck in the twelve months of the year, and opening windows and doors during the first day of the New Year to let in the good luck. Christmas officially ends on the Feast of the [[Three Kings]] (Tres Reyes in ''Spanish'' or Tatlong Hari in ''Tagalog''), also known as the [[Feast of the Epiphany]]. The Feast of the Three Kings was traditionally commemorated on Jan. 6 but is now celebrated on the first Sunday after the New Year. Some children leave their shoes out, so that the Three Kings would leave behind gifts like candy or money inside. Jan. 6 is also known in other countries as Twelfth Night, and the "Twelve Days of Christmas" referred to in the Christmas carol are the twelve days between Christmas Day (December 25) and the coming of the Three Kings (January 6). ===Singapore=== [[Image:Orchard Road light up Xmas 2005.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Singapore]] [[Orchard Road]] is lit up every year during the Christmas season]] [[Image:Raffles City 3, Xmas, Dec 06.JPG|thumb|left|Christmas tree in [[Singapore]]- [[Raffles City]]]] In [[Singapore]], Christmas is a public holiday celebrated by almost everyone (Christian or otherwise). Typically it is also the boom time for retailers as Christmas season is also the time most people get their year-end bonuses. The entire shopping district like [[Orchard Road]] and Marina Centre areas is decorated with colorful lights from early or mid November till early January. In recent years, a charitable organization called Celebrating Christmas in Singapore Ltd (with links to the National Council of Churches of Singapore) organized the "Celebrating Christmas in Singapore" during Christmas period with carolling, concerts and parade down Orchard Road. As Christmas is not a native festival here, there is nothing local except for maybe the warmer tropical climate. Christmas celebration in Singapore tends to be borrowed heavily from the American version with turkey dinner and decoration. As Christians only comprise 14% of the population, most of the celebration tends to be secular and commercial in nature. Local companies normally arrange gift exchange programs on the last working day before Christmas. ===Taiwan=== [[Image:Taipei101 in Xmas Tree Costume.jpg|thumb|right|Christmas tree on the [[Taipei 101]] building in [[Taipei]].]] In Taiwan, Christmas is not officially celebrated or legally recognized. However, coincidentally, [[December 25]] is the date of the signing of the [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] in 1947, officially the Constitution Day ([[:zh:行憲紀念日]]). Hence there was already an official holiday on that date designated in 1963 by the [[Executive Yuan]],<ref>[http://www.gio.gov.tw/info/festival_c/law_e/law.htm Government Information Office of the Republic of China: Constitution Day]</ref> which is largely, though unofficially, treated as if it were Christmas. In order to avoid having too many legal holidays when phasing in two-day-off-per-week plan, the Constitution Day is no longer a full legal holiday with a day off since 2001. Some people have become disappointed that [[December 25]] has ceased to be a holiday, but there are still unofficial celebrations of Christmas. ==North America== ===Mexico=== [[Mexico]]'s Christmas traditions are based on Mexico's form of [[Roman Catholicism]] and popular culture traditions also called ''[[posadas]]''. Over nine days, groups of townspeople go from door to door in a fashion reminiscent of when the parents of unborn baby [[Jesus Christ|Jesus]] looked for shelter to pass the night when they arrived at [[Bethlehem]], and are periodically called inside homes to participate in the breaking of a gift-filled [[piñata]]. Mexican Christmas is not influenced by American Christmas{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} since it is filled with over 30 traditions found only within Mexican Christmas. Nowadays, American Christmas is influencing the holiday more, specially in cities north from Mexico City where, as an example, [[Santa Claus]] is more popular among the kids than "Niño Dios" or Baby Jesus as the person who brings the gifts. In many Mexican places, children receive gifts not on Christmas but on January 6, the Feast of the Epiphany, when, according to tradition, the [[Biblical Magi|Three Wise Men]] bring gifts not only to baby Jesus but also to children who have placed written requests in their shoes. At midnight on Christmas, millions of families place the figure of baby Jesus in their ''nacimientos'' ([[Nativity scene]]s), as the symbolic representation of Christmas as a whole. Mexican Christmas festivities start on December 12, with the birthday of La Guadalupana ([[Virgin of Guadalupe]]), and end on January 6, with the Epiphany. Children usually do not attend school on this date; and, when they go to their rooms, they find not only the toys but also that the Three Magic Kings have appeared at ''El Nacimiento''. Since the 1990s, Mexican society has embraced a new concept linking several celebrations around Christmas time into what is known as the [[Guadalupe-Reyes Marathon]]. ===United States and Canada=== [[Image:Xmastreenewyork06.jpg|thumb|right|Christmas at [[Rockefeller Center]], located in [[New York City]], [[USA]]]] [[Image:Rideau Canal, UNESCO World Heritage.jpg|thumb|left|Christmas in [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]]]] In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], the Santa Claus traditions are essentially the same, except in [[Quebec]] and other French speaking areas, with its [[réveillon]] and the Père Noël ("[[Father Christmas]]" in French). The Celebration of [[Boxing Day]] on the day after Christmas Day is a tradition practiced in much of English-speaking Canada, as it is in the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. Many Christmas-related tourist attractions, such as the [[Rockefeller Center]] Christmas tree and elaborate animated [[department store]] windows in [[New York City]] are heavily visited by tourists from all over the world. ==South America== Religious themes predominate in Christmas celebrations in heavily [[Roman Catholic]] [[South America]]. The secular customs and gift-giving in these countries are an admixture of traditions handed down from [[European ethnic groups|European]] and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] forebears, plus the increasing influence of American culture. Gift giving traditions include [[Chile]]'s "Viejo Pascuero" (Easter Old Man), and [[Brazil]]'s "Papai Noel", the latter two resembling Santa Claus in many ways. South American "Santas" dress more lightly in keeping with the warmer Christmas there, and have adopted a number of means, from ladders to trampolines, to enter homes at night. Gift giving in [[Argentina]] occurs both in Christmas and on January 6, "Kings' Day", when children leave shoes under the Christmas tree to be filled with snacks or small gifts by the Magi, who stop off on their way to [[Bethlehem]]. [[Nativity scene]]s are a strong feature of South American Christmas, both in homes and in public places. In regions with large numbers of Native American descendants, such as [[Peru]], the figures are often hand-carved in a centuries-old style. As in [[Mexico]], village processions acting out the events surrounding the birth of Christ are also common. Family Christmas meals are very important, and their contents are as varied as the number of countries on the continent. Christmas lights are a near-universal holiday feature, and with the summery weather, fireworks displays are also found, especially over the cities of Brazil and Argentina. ===Brazil=== [[Image:Christmas decoration (DSC04820).jpg|thumb|right|Christmas display in a [[Brazil]]ian shopping mall]] In most of Brazil, the Christmas is particularly a family celebration and it carries the European traditions, particularly from [[Portugal]], brought by the [[Jesuits]]. Between December 24 and January 6, there is an event in the most traditional regions called ''Folia de Reis'', which consist in processions through the city singing [[Christmas carol]]s for the "Menino-Deus" (The "[[Baby Jesus]]") and the Three Kings. However, in most of the southern cities, as well as in the largest cities of the Southeastern Region, like [[São Paulo]], [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Belo Horizonte]] the celebrations resemble in many ways the traditions in [[Northern Europe]] and [[North America]], with the [[Christmas Tree]], the exchanging of gifts and Christmas cards, the decoration of houses and buildings with electric lights and the [[Nativity Scene]]. In some cities like [[Curitiba]], there are some decoration contests, when judges go to some houses to look at the decoration, inside or outside of the house, and decide the most beautiful house. The Christmas Eve is the most important day. In the midnight between December 24 and December 25, the churches celebrate the "Misa del Gallo" (the Rooster's Mass). ===Colombia=== Christmas in [[Colombia]] is primarily a religious holiday. Presents are brought by ''El Niño Dios'' ([[Baby Jesus]]) instead of ''Papá Noél'' (Santa Claus), whose gift giving role has been downplayed some by the Church. However, Santa Claus is still an important [[Christmas]] figure, as Santa decorations are common, and Santa can be seen posing for pictures at shopping malls. While Christmas decorations may be put up as early as the beginning of November, the unofficial start of Colombian Christmas festivities takes place on [[December 7]], [[Día de las Velitas]], or "Day of the Candles." At night, the streets, sidewalks, balconies, porches, and driveways are decorated with [[candle]]s and [[paper lantern]]s, which illuminate cities and towns in a yellow glow to honor the [[Immaculate Conception]] on the following day, [[December 8]]. Activities such as musical events and [[firework]] displays are planned by cities and held during this time. In many cities, and even in small rural towns, neighborhoods get together and decorate their whole neighborhood or street, turning streets into virtual "tunnels of light." Many radio stations and local organizations hold contests for the best display of lights, making the competition for the best light show a serious event. Fireworks were a common item during the holiday season in Colombia, often going on at any time of the day everyday in many cities, but a recent ban of fireworks has decreased the use of fireworks, and now only cities or towns are able to hold firework displays. [[December 16]] is the first day of the Christmas [[Novena]], a [[devotion]] consisting of [[prayer]] said on nine successive days, the last one held on [[Christmas Eve]]. The Novena is promoted by the [[Catholic Church|Church]] as a staple of Christmas, and is very similar to the [[posadas]] celebrated in [[Mexico.]] It is a call for an understanding of the religious meaning of Christmas, and a way to counter the commercialism of the Christmas season. Individual traditions concerning the Novena may vary, but most families set up a ''pesebre'' (manger scene), sing religious Christmas carols called [[villancicos]] accompanied by tambourines, bells, and other simple percussion instruments, and read verses from the [[Bible]] as well as an interpretation which may change from year to year. From December 16 to 18, some people play games called ''aguinaldos''. The games include ''Hablar y no contestar'', ''Dar y no recibir'', ''Si y no'', ''Tres pies'', ''Beso robado'', and ''Pajita en boca''. Churches offer nightly masses during the nine days of the novena, culminating with the ''Misa de Gallo'' (Rooster's Mass) on [[Christmas Eve]] at midnight. Christmas Eve is the most important day of Christmas in Colombia. Families and friends get together to pray the last Novena and wait until midnight to open the presents, parties are held until sunrise on [[Christmas Day]], kids stay up late playing with their new presents, and fireworks fill the skies. Because Christmas Eve is the most important day, little goes on on [[December 25]]. ''El día de los innocentes'', or the [[Day of the Innocents]], falls in the Christmas season and is celebrated in Colombia as a day for pranks, equivalent to [[April Fool's Day]]. Prank victims are known as ''innocentes'', or "innocent ones." [[January 6]], the day of the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Revelation of the Magi]], used to be a day of gift giving, but is celebrated less now. Some families still give presents, and it is also the day when [[godparent]]s give Christmas presents. ===Venezuela=== In [[Venezuela]] Christmas is celebrated as a religious holiday. As in Colombia, the presents are brought by “El Niño Jesus” (Baby Jesus) instead of “Papá Noél” (Santa Claus), that still has an important role during this season. The unofficial start of the Christmas festivities is after the celebrations of "Feria de la Chinita", second half of November. The origin of this festivity is the cult to Virgin Mary of [[Chiquinquirá]], when various religious activities, processions, and music festivals with the typical "[[Gaita (music style)]]" to honor "La [[Chinita]]" (nickname of this Virgin). This event takes place in the Zulia Region, specially in Maracaibo (the regional capital). After this festivity, the Christmas Spirit is every where and many activities take place including musical events of [[Gaita (music style)]], firework displays, and many other events planned by other cities across the country. In many cities, small rural towns and neighborhoods get together for the "patinatas" night festivals where kids go and play with skateboards, roller blades and bicycles. This events are usually sponsored by the local church, where neighbors organize themselves and sell typical Christmas food, hot chocolate, [[hallaca]], cookies, etc. Also still in some neighborhoods there is the "[[Parranda]]" where people goes from one house to house with music and xmas songs. The singers stops at neighbors houses to get some food and drinks. Also in the Venezuelan Andes there is the same tradition of this kind of event but they carry an image of "baby Jesus" and this is called "[[Paradura del Niño]]" Children write request letters to Baby Jesus. The presents are sent by Baby Jesus at midnight, and most people have a party, which goes on until sunrise. ==Oceania== ===Australia=== In [[Australia]], as with all of the [[Southern Hemisphere]], 25 December occurs during the height of the summer season. According to tradition, children are told Santa Claus visits houses on Christmas Eve placing presents for children under the Christmas tree or in stockings or sacks which are usually hung by a fireplace. Gifts are opened the next morning, 25 December. In recent decades many new apartments and homes have been built without traditional combustion fireplaces, however with some innovation the tradition persists. Biscuits, Christmas cake and milk (sometimes liquor) may be left out for Santa to consume during his visit. Traditionally, extended families gather on 25 December for a Christmas lunch similar to a traditional United Kingdom Christmas meal that includes decorated hams, roast turkey, roast chicken, salads and roast vegetables, accompanied by [[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]], and followed by fruit [[mince pies]], [[trifle]], and [[plum pudding]] with [[brandy butter]]. [[Christmas crackers]] are a feature of the meal. [[Candy canes]] are a popular confectionery in Australia in the Christmas period. More recently, as appropriate to the sometimes hot weather on the day, lighter meals featuring fish and seafood may be served, along with barbecue lunches. However, the typical roast remains popular. The Australian traditions and decorations are quite similar to those of the United Kingdom and [[North America]], and similar wintry iconography is commonplace. This means a red fur-coated Santa Claus riding a sleigh, carols such as ''Jingle Bells'', and various snow-covered Christmas scenes on Christmas cards and decorations appear in the middle of summer. The traditional [[Christmas tree]] is the most crucial decorative item, while strings of lights and tinsel are common. Decorations appear in stores and on streets starting in November, and are commonplace by early December. The tradition of sending [[Christmas cards]] is widely practised in Australia; the price of a Christmas postage stamp is lower than that for a standard letter; senders are required to mark the envelope "Christmas card only" when using the lower priced stamps. As novelties, some Australian songwriters and authors have occasionally depicted Santa in "Australian"-style clothing including an [[Akubra]] hat, with warm-weather clothing and [[Flip-flop|thongs]], and having his sleigh pulled by [[kangaroo]]s, (e.g. ''Six White Boomers'' by [[Rolf Harris]]) but these depictions have not replaced mainstream iconography. As Christmas falls in summer, the watching of television is not a strong part of Australian Christmas traditions, unlike in the [[United Kingdom]], in which it is one of the most important days for [[Broadcasters' Audience Research Board|television ratings]]. [[Television ratings in Australia]] are not taken during the summer and schedules are mostly filled with repeats of old programmes or previously cancelled shows. Some Australian-produced programs have a Christmas special, though often it will be shown early December and not on Christmas Day itself. Many television stations rerun old Christmas-themed films in the weeks leading up to and including Christmas Day, such as ''[[Miracle on 34th Street]]'', and various film versions of ''[[A Christmas Carol (disambiguation)|A Christmas Carol]]''. [[Image:Giant christmas ball.jpg|thumb|left|Giant Christmas bulb sculpture in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]]] Some homeowners decorate the exterior of their houses. Displays range from the modest to elaborate, sometimes with hundreds of lights and decorations depicting seasonal motifs such as Christmas trees, Santa Claus, reindeer, or nativity scenes. Particular regions have a tradition for elaborate displays, and attract a great amount of pedestrian and vehicular traffic during the Christmas season. [[Carols by Candlelight]] is a tradition that started in [[Melbourne]] in 1938 and has since spread around Australia and the world. At the event people gather on [[Christmas Eve]], usually outdoors, to sing carols by candlelight in a large-scale concert style event. The Vision Australia's Carols by Candlelight which takes place at the [[Sidney Myer Music Bowl]] in [[Melbourne]] on Christmas Eve, is televised nationwide and it has become a tradition for many Australians to watch the performance. [[Carols in the Domain]] takes place in [[Sydney]] the Saturday before Christmas. A popular tradition celebrated in [[Adelaide]] is the [[Adelaide Christmas Pageant]]. This parade is the largest of its kind in the world, attracting crowds of over 400,000 people. Begun in 1933, the pageant is staged in early November every year, usually on a Saturday morning, marking the start of the Christmas season. It comprises a procession of floats, bands, clowns, dancing groups, and walking performers, all culminating in the arrival of [[Santa Claus]]. At the terminus of the pageant Santa proceeds to the Magic Cave in the [[David Jones Limited|David Jones]] department store where he can be visited by children. Smaller scale pageants are also held in regional centres. Special events for international tourists away from their families are held on [[Bondi Beach, New South Wales|Bondi Beach]] in [[Sydney]]. These may involve a turkey [[barbecue]] and such humorous stunts as a fake Santa dressed in a Santa suit [[surfing]] in to appear to the crowd. Most workplaces conduct a "Christmas Party" some time during December, but rarely on Christmas Eve itself. As many people take their holidays between Christmas and New Year's Day, and many workplaces completely close for that period, these parties are effectively an end of year or break-up party and frequently feature little or no reference to Christmas itself. Often they will not even be named the "Christmas Party" but called the "end of year party" or a "break-up party". Two major sporting events traditionally commence on [[Boxing Day|the day after Christmas Day]] in Australia: the [[Boxing Day Test]] [[test cricket|cricket test match]], and the [[Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race]]. ===New Zealand=== [[Image:20041216 auckland skyline night.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Sky Tower]] illuminated in [[Christmas]] colours during the month of [[December]].]] Many of Australia's Christmas traditions also apply to New Zealand: as with its larger neighbour, New Zealand celebrates Christmas with traditional [[Northern Hemisphere]] winter imagery, though to some extent the symbols of the holly and ivy common to the British and North American Christmas are replaced by the [[Pōhutukawa]] tree, which blossoms annually in late December and is thus often called the "New Zealand Christmas tree". This does not stop New Zealand homes being decorated with the more standard pine tree however. Children in New Zealand are also told of the surreptitious visit of Father Christmas to leave presents. [[Image:Christmas pudding.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Traditional [[Christmas Pudding]], can be doused in brandy and set a-light if desired.]] [[Image:Santarchy new zealand.jpg|thumb|right|Santarchy at [[Whitcoulls]] in [[New Zealand]]]] Traditional winter-styled hot roast food also has a role in New Zealand's festivities, Christmas dinner is also the place where [[Christmas Crackers]] are used, people will pull a cracker with another before eating. Traditional (generally British) Christmas desserts are also consumed, i.e. [[Christmas Pudding]], [[Trifle]], [[Christmas Cake]] and [[Mince Pie]]s. Also served is the traditional dessert of [[Pavlova (food)|pavlova]]. House decoration is also popular in New Zealand and people put up strings of lights on windows, roofs, decks and fences. Store chain, [[The Warehouse]] hosts a competition to find the best-decorated house of the year. As with Australia, the watching of television is not a strong part of New Zealand Christmas traditions, though some Christmas-specific programmes are usually shown, usually including a mix of religious programmes and special one-off episodes of regular television series (many of them British or American shows). The [[Queen's Christmas message]] is also broadcast at around 6pm on [[Christmas]] evening. The Australian tradition of [[Carols by Candlelight]] is popular in New Zealand, especially in Auckland and Christchurch, where there is usually a large outdoor carol-singing gathering known as ''Christmas in the park''. In keeping with the festive season a number of parades are held in the major centers of New Zealand (not including local parades around the country). The most popular of these would be the [[Auckland]] Santa Parade down [[Queen Street, Auckland|Queen Street]] with numerous floats and marching bands attracting large crowds every year, although it is held during late [[November]] (to accommodate the holidaymakers), it is seen as the preamble to the later festivities. ==Europe== ===Central Europe=== In countries of [[Central Europe]] (for this purpose, roughly defined as the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Austria, Hungary and possibly other places) the main celebration date for the general public is Christmas Eve (December 24). The day is usually a fasting day; in some places children are told they'll see a ''golden pig'' if they hold fast until dinner. When the evening comes preparation of Christmas Dinner starts. Traditions concerning dinner vary from region to region, for example in the [[Czech Republic]] the prevailing meal is fried [[carp]] with potato salad and fish soup. However, in some places the tradition is porridge with mushrooms (a modest dish), and elsewhere the dinner is exceptionally rich, with up to 12 dishes. What's common is that people usually stay in close family circle. Staying alone during Christmas Eve is considered very sad, and many families "bring home" their grandparents at least for Christmas. After the dinner comes the time for gifts. Tradition varies with region, commonly gifts are attributed to ''[[Christkind]]'' (Little Jesus) or their real originators (e.g. parents). Children usually find their gifts under the Christmas Tree, with name stickers. An interesting example of complicated history of the region is the "fight" between Christmas beings. During communism, when countries of Central Europe were under Soviet influence, communist authorities strongly pushed Russian traditional ''Ded Moroz'' ("Grandfather Frost") in the place of ''Christkind''. Little Jesus won. Now [[Santa Claus]] is attacking, by means of advertising and Hollywood film production. Many people, Christians as well as people with just a Christian background, go to [[Roman Catholic]] churches for Midnight Mass. It's not uncommon to go to a church only one time a year, for this Christmas Mass. Other attributes of Christmas include [[Christmas tree]]s, mistletoe, Christmas garlands, [http://vvpg.net/bratislava/Christmas.htm#Cribs Bethlehem Cribs]. ====Czech Republic and Slovakia==== [[Image:DSC00667.jpg|220px|thumb|left|Old Town Square in [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]]- Christmastime.]] Christmas Eve (December 24) is the celebrated as ''Štědrý den'' , which means "open-handed day", when the gifts are given in the evening. However, the [[December 25]] and 26 are also holidays. According to tradition, gifts are brought by ''Ježíšek'', or "baby Jesus". Many very old Christmas traditions are followed, mostly for fun. People are taught to fast on Christmas Eve until a ceremonial dinner is served, in order to be able to see a "golden pig". Carp is a popular dish for the dinner. The gifts are displayed under the Christmas tree (usually a [[spruce]] or [[pine]]), and people open them after their Christmas dinner. Other Czech and Slovak Christmas traditions involve predictions for the future. Apples are always cut crosswise; if a star appears in the core, the next year will be successful, while a cross suggests a bad year. Girls throw shoes over the their shoulders; if the toe points to the door, the girl will get married soon. Another tradition requires pouring a little molten lead into water and guessing a message from the shapes that appear when it hardens. ====German-speaking areas of Europe==== [[Image:Wien Rathaus Christkindlmarkt Dez2006B.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Christmas market in front of the town hall in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]]] The Christmas market, ''[[Striezelmarkt]]'', in Dresden is one of Germany's oldest documented Christmas markets. Striezelmarkt, in [[Germany]]'s [[Dresden]] region, is arguably a worldwide Christmas gift production center which continues for nearly one month. This is the time when Dresden ''[[Stollen]]'' fruitcake, Pulsnitzer [[gingerbread]], wood carvings from the Erzgebirge Mountains, Dresden ''Pflaumentoffel'',(chimney sweep's boy) <ref>[http://www.dresden.de/en/05/08/04-4/02-Symbols_and_tradition.php Dresden Pflaumentoffel]</ref> Lusatian indigo print, Silesian [[ceramic]]s, Bohemian glass, and Meissen [[porcelain]] dominate the lives of visitors who come from all over to thoroughly immerse themselves in Christmas time plesures. [[Knecht Ruprecht]] is a companion of St [[Nikolaus]] in many different [[German language|German]] speaking areas of Europe. In some German-speaking communities, particularly in Catholic regions of southern [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]] and [[Liechtenstein]], as well as in other Catholic regions of Central Europe, the character of Santa is replaced by the ''[[Christkind]]'' (literally "Christ child"). He brings the presents not on the morning of December 25, but on the evening of December 24 (Holy Evening or Heiliger Abend). The Christkind is invisible; he is never seen by anyone. However, he rings a bell just before he leaves in order to let children know that the [[Christmas tree]] and the presents are ready. [[Image:Bavarian Crib.JPG|thumb|left|300px|Old Bavarian Crib found in [[Magnus of Füssen|St Mang]] Basilica [[Füssen]] [[Bavaria]]]] It is a tradition to lavishly decorate a [[Christmas tree]] in the days directly before Christmas or on the morning of [[Christmas Eve]]. On late Christmas Eve, after the bell ring, the tree is shown to the children and presents are exchanged. In [[Protestant]] Churches there is a service in the late afternoon intended to immediately precede the [[Christmas Eve]] meal and the exchanging of gifts. This service, called "Christvesper", consists most often of scriptural readings, the Christmas Gospel from Luke 2, a "Krippenspiel" (nativity play), favourite Christmas carols and festive music for organ and choirs. In some regions the tradition of "Quempas singing" is still popular. [[Image:PfToffel.jpg|thumb|150px|Pflaumentoffel, a chimney sweep's boy as lucky charm.]] Some [[Lutheran]] Churches also celebrate a candlelight service at midnight besides the Christmas [[Vespers]] in the afternoon or early evening. Many [[Catholic]] Churches also have a first Mass of Christmas on "Heiliger Abend" about 4 p.m. for the children and parents to attend before the families return home for their meal. The crib is a very important part of the celebrations in Catholic areas especially [[Bavaria]]. See [[Saint Nicholas]] for information about ''Saint Nicholas Day'', a festivity similar to Christmas from which many English and American traditions derive. ====Germany==== [[Image:Räuchermännchen.jpg|thumb|Räuchermännchen, toys from the Christmas market]] [[Image:IMG 2112.JPG|thumb|right|anchor|165px|Christmas tree in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]]] {{commons cat|Christmas markets in Germany}} In Germany Christmas traditions vary by region. On Saint Nicholas' Day, the 6th of December, Saint Nicholas puts goodies in children's shoes. Sometimes [[St. Nicholas]] visits children in kindergartens, schools or at public events. They have to recite a short poem or sing a song in order to get sweets or a small gift. "[[Knecht Ruprecht]]" (the servant Ruprecht - dressed in dark clothes with devil-like traits and with a stick or a small whip in the hand) sometimes accompanies St. Nicholas. His duty is to punish those children who haven't behaved during the year. Usually he doesn't have much to do. He merely stands near St. Nicholas as a warning to be good and polite. This festival is for the most part a children's festival. The actual Christmas gift-giving (German: "Bescherung") usually takes place on [[Christmas Eve]]. This tradition first began with the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], since [[Martin Luther]] was of the opinion that one should put the emphasis on Christ's birth and not on a saint's day and do away with the connotation that gifts have to be earned by good behaviour. The gifts should be seen as a symbol for the gift of God's grace in Christ <ref>Ernst, Eugen: Weihnachten im Wandel der Zeiten, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2. Aufl. Darmstadt 2000, pp. 34 - 35</ref>. In the meanwhile this tradition is also common in predominantly Catholic regions. The [[Christmas Tree]] is first put up and decorated on the morning of the 24th. The gifts are then placed under the tree. Often after Christmas [[Vespers]] in the church and an evening meal the father usually goes into the room where the tree is standing, lights the candles and rings a little bell. Then the children are allowed to go into the candlelit room. In many families it is still a custom to sing Christmas songs around the tree before opening up the presents. Some families, especially Catholic families, attend a midnight church service after the evening meal and gift-giving. The culinary feast either takes place at supper on [[Christmas Eve]] or on the first day of Christmas, and usually involves poultry (typically roast goose). Some families prefer a lighter and simpler meal on Christmas Eve. They eat [[potato salad]] and [[sausages]], [[carp]] or a hearty [[soup]] and eat goose, duck or pork roast on Christmas Day. The gifts may be brought by the ''Weihnachtsmann'' (translation, "Christmas man"), who resembles either [[St. Nicholas]] or the American [[Santa Claus]], or by the ''[[Christkind]]'', a sprite-like child who may or may not represent the baby Jesus. After the gifts are opened the children often stay up as late as they like, often till the early hours of the morning. ====Hungary and Hungarian-speaking areas of Europe==== [[Image:Vaci utca.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Christmas decorations in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]]] In [[Hungary]] and in the Hungarian-speaking areas of Europe (in Austria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine), celebrations begin with Christmas tree decoration and gift packaging during daytime on 24 December, then comes a family dinner with traditional Christmas meals, and in the evening (Christmas Eve, in Hungarian: Szenteste) the Angel or the Little (Baby) Jesus (Hungarian: Kisjézus or Jézuska) delivers the presents. This is the most intimate moment of Christmas, featuring warmly lit Christmas tree and candles, soft Christmas music, family singing of Christmas or religious songs and gift pack openings.There is also a popular folk custom during December and especially on Christmas Eve, in which children or adults present the birth of Jesus. The custom is called 'playing Betlehem' (Hungarian: Betlehemezés), and it is an acting performance, where the 'actors' are wearing costumes, and telling stories about the three kings, the shephards, Mary, Joseph and of course the birth of the Holy Child. A Christmas crib and a church are used as the scene. The actors go from house to house, and they receive gifts for their performance. NOTE: in Hungary (and equally in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Transylvania, Austria, and other catholic Central European countries or regions), [[Santa Claus]] (Hungarian: Mikulás, Czech: Mikuláš, Slovak: Mikuláš) has nothing to do with Christmas. He visits families earlier, in the dawn of 6 December, and puts presents and candy-bags for the well-behaving children (to be put in their well polished shoes they put in the windows previous evening). Hungarian Mikulás never parks his sleigh on roofs and never climbs chimneys, but is usually accompanied by a diabolic-looking servant named Krampusz (in Austria, Slovenia, and Croatia: Krampus, in Czech and Slovak regions he is simply "čert", i.e. devil, without any name) who gives golden coloured birches for so called badly-behaved children. Actually all children get both gifts and golden birches in their shoes, no matter how they behaved themselves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jcu.edu/language/hunghemu/hunghe7g.htm|title= Hungarian Heritage Museum|accessdate=2007-09-18}}</ref> ====Poland==== {{main|Christmas in Poland}} In [[Poland]], Christmas Eve is a day first of fasting, then of feasting. The feast begins with the appearance of the first star, and is followed by the exchange of gifts. The giftbearer in Poland is Swiety Mikolaj or Saint Nicholas. The following day is often spent visiting friends. Poland is a land of intriguing traditions, superstitions, and legends. Its people have always combined religion and family closeness at Christmastime. Although gift giving plays a major role in the rituals, emphasis is placed more on making special foods and decorations. ===Eastern Europe=== Since the 1880s, the Christmas customs of [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] countries have included a similar character known as ''[[Ded Moroz]]'' ("Grandfather Frost"). According to legend, he travels in a magical ''[[troika]]'' &mdash; a decorated sleigh drawn by three horses. With his young, blond assistant ''Snegurochka'' (the Snow Maiden, said to be his granddaughter) at his side, he visits homes and gives gifts to good children. He only delivers presents to children while they are asleep, and unlike Santa, he does not travel down chimneys, coming instead to the front door of children's homes. It is traditional for children to leave food for Ded Moroz. This Ded Moroz is not identified nor in any way associated with St. Nicholas of Myra, who is very widely revered in Eastern Europe more for his clerical and charitable works as a Bishop. In all likelihood, Ded Moroz is actually in Slavic tradition like Santa Claus or some similar figure, any connection to the original saint long since disappeared. ====Armenia==== [[Armenians]] celebrate Christmas ( surb tsnund ) on January 6. There are many dishes that moms and grandmas make especially for that day- rice with raisins, fish and many other things, accompanied with red wine. The Christmas tree (''tonatsar'') is either natural or artificial. The idea of Santa Claus existed before the Soviet Union and he named ('' kaghand papik''), but the Soviet Union had a great impact even on Santa Claus. Now he is named ( '' dzmer papik'') literally meaning "grandfather winter". ====Georgia==== [[Image:Alilo 2008.jpg|thumb|left|Children at the Alilo march in the streets of [[Tbilisi]]]] [[Georgians]] celebrate Christmas ({{lang-ka|შობა}}, ''shoba'') on January 7 (December 25 on the [[Julian calendar]]). It is traditional in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] is to go on [[Alilo]] (a modified pronunciation of [[Alleluia]]), a mass walk in the streets, dressed in special clothing to celebrate and congratulate each other the holiday. Most members of the Alilo march are children and they are given sweets by the adults. The Alilo carols vary across the [[mkhare|provinces]] of Georgia. In most songs these words are used: "ოცდახუთსა დეკემბერსა, ქრისტე იშვა ბეთლემსაო'" (''otsdakhutsa dekembersa qriste ishva betlemsao'') - "on December 25 Christ was born in [[Bethlehem]]". A local variant of the Christmas tree, called [[Chichilaki]], is made of soft wooden material with curled branches. Sometimes it is hazelnut branch which is carved into a [[Tree of Life (Judeo-Christian)|Tree of Life]]-like shape and decorated with fruits and sweets. The Western custom of a Christmas tree (''nadzvis khe'') is also popular and have been imported through Russia. The Georgian equivalent of "Santa Claus" is known as ''tovlis papa'' (or ''tovlis babua'' in western [[Georgian dialects]]), literally meaning a "Grandfather snow", and is traditionally portrayed with long white beard, dressed in national costume "[[chokha]]" and wearing a fur cloak "nabadi". ====Russia==== [[Image:Place pres de la gare Moscou.jpg|thumb|right|Newyear decorations in [[Nizhny Novgorod]] ]] Christmas celebration in [[Russia]] is not as widely followed as in Western countries in favor of the [[New Year's Eve#Russia and Former Soviet Union|New Year]] celebration. Christmas is celebrated on the 7th of January (which corresponds to December 25 in the [[Julian Calendar]]). The tradition of celebrating Christmas has been revived since 1992, after decades of suppression by the communist government. It is centered on the Christmas Eve "Holy Supper", which consists of 12 servings, one to honor each of Jesus' apostles. The Russian traditions were largely kept alive by shifting some of them, including the visit by gift-giving "Grandfather Frost" and his "Snowmaiden", to New Year's Day. Many current Russian Christmas customs, including their Christmas tree, or "yolka"(spruce, sometimes pine instead of it), were brought by [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], after his western travels in the late 17th century. In Eastern Europe, [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] countries have the tradition of ''[[Ded Moroz]]'' ("Grandfather Frost"). He is accompanied by his granddaughter ''[[Snegurochka]]'' ("Snowmaiden"). According to legend, he travels in a magical decorated sleigh drawn by three white horses, and delivers gifts to children. He is thought to descend more from Santa Claus than from [[Saint Nicholas]], having been promoted by the Soviets as a non-religious alternative. ====Ukraine==== {{Main|Christmas traditions in Ukraine}} [[Image:Kiev Christmas Tree (Maidan Nezalezhnosti, 2006-2007).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Christmas tree in [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]].]] ''[[Twelve-dish Christmas Eve supper|Sviata Vecheria]]'' or "Holy Supper" is the central tradition of the Christmas Eve celebrations in Ukrainian homes. The dinner table sometimes has a few wisps of hay on the embroidered table cloth as a reminder of the manger in Bethlehem. When the children see the first star in the eastern evening sky, which symbolizes the trek of the Three Wise Men, the Sviata Vechera may begin. In farming communities the head of the household now brings in a sheaf of wheat called the didukh which represents the importance of the ancient and rich wheat crops of Ukraine, the staff of life through the centuries. Didukh means literally "grandfather spirit" so it symbolizes the family's ancestors. In city homes a few stalks of golden wheat in a vase are often used to decorate the table. A prayer is said and the father says the traditional Christmas greeting, "Chrystos rodyvsya!" which is translated to "Christ is born!", which is answered by the family with "Slavite Yoho!" which means "Let Us Glorify Him!". In some families the Old Slavic form "Сhrystos rozhdayetsya!" is used. At the end of the Sviata Vechera the family often sings Ukrainian Christmas Carols. In many communities the old Ukrainian tradition of caroling is carried on by groups of young people and members of organizations and churches calling at homes and collecting donations. Traditionally, Christmas Day opens for Ukrainian families with attendance at Church. Ukrainian Churches offer services starting before midnight on Christmas Eve and on Christmas morning. Christmas supper, without Lenten restrictions, does not have as many traditions connected with it as Sviata Vechera. The old tradition in Ukraine of giving gifts to children on St. Nicholas Day, December 19, has generally been replaced by the Christmas date. In Ukraine, at Christmas Eve when everyone is at the table, Angels bring presents which they leave near the Christmas tree. It is also customary to include a spider among the decorations on the Christmas tree.<ref>[http://www.kraftmstr.com/christmas/books/spider.html]</ref> ===Northern Europe=== ====Denmark==== {{main|Jul (Denmark)}} [[Image:Julemiddag.jpg|thumb|left|165px|Traditional Danish Christmas dinner.]] Danes celebrate on [[December 24]], which is referred to as ''Juleaften'' (literally "Yule Eve"). An evening meal with the family consists of either roast pork, roast duck or roast goose and eaten with potatoes, red cabbage and plenty of gravy. For dessert, rice pudding is traditionally served, at midnight Christmas Eve, everyone looks forward to dessert when the rice pudding is served in which a single almond is hidden. Whoever finds the almond will have good luck for the coming year, and the lucky finder of this almond is entitled to a small gift. After the meal is complete, the family gathers around the Christmas tree and sings Christmas songs. When the singing is complete, traditions vary. In some traditions, the family will select one child to hand out the presents. All children take turns handing out presents in other traditions. They are opened and this is followed by more snacks, candy, chips and, sometimes, a traditional Christmas drink called ''[[Gløgg]].'' The Danish are somewhat famous for their ''Julefrokost,'' literally meaning "Christmas lunch", which includes various traditional Danish dishes, frequently accompanied by beer and [[Snaps]]. These Julefrokoster are popular and held within families, as well as by companies and other social groups. They would traditionally have taken place leading up to Christmas, but due to time constraints and stress during the Christmas month they are nowadays commonly held during November and January. The family Julefrokoster however are normally held between Juleaften and New Year's Eve. Another more recent Danish tradition is the concept of TV ''Julekalendere'', special Christmas-themed, advent calendar type TV shows with a daily episode shown on each of the first 24 days of December, thus culminating on ''Juleaften''. Several TV stations produce their own, most, but not all of which are targeted at child viewers. Some of the TV advent calendars become extremely popular and go on to be reprised in subsequent years. In Denmark, Santa Claus is known as [[Julemanden]] (literally "the Yule Man") and is said to arrive in a sleigh drawn by reindeer, with presents for the children. He is assisted with his Yuletide chores by elves known as julenisser (or simply nisser), who are traditionally believed to live in attics, barns or similar places. In some traditions, to maintain the favor and protection of these nisser, children leave out saucers of milk or rice pudding or other treats for them and are delighted to find the food gone on Christmas morning. ====Estonia====  In the weeks preceding Christmas or [[Jõulud]], children place a shoe or slipper in their windows and receive a piece of candy or some other sweets from visiting elves ("päkapikud"). Estonians celebrate Christmas on [[December 24]], which is referred to as ''Jõululaupäev'' ("Christmas Saturday"). The evening meal typically includes pork with sauerkraut or Estonian sauerkraut ("mulgikapsad"), baked potatoes, white and blood sausage, potato salad with red beet, and pāté. For dessert, Estonians eat gingerbread "piparkoogid") and marzipan. The most highly regarded drinks during this holiday have been beer and mulled wine or [[glögi]] and [[hõõgvein]] ("glowing wine"). Estonians leave the leftover food from Christmas dinner on the table over night, in hopes that the spirits of family, friends, and loved ones will visit and also have something to eat. It is also customary to visit graveyards and leave candles for the deceased. Each year on December 24, the President of Estonia declares the [[Christmas Peace]] and attends a Christmas service. The tradition was initiated by the order of [[Christina of Sweden|Queen Christina]] of [[Sweden]] in the 17th century. Estonian children are visited by [[Jõuluvana]] (Old Man Christmas) on Christmas Eve and must sing songs or recite Christmas poems before receiving their gifts. December 25 or "Jõulupüha" is a relaxed day for visiting relatives. ====Finland==== [[Image:Christmas Tree, SantaPark, Rovaniemi 2005.jpg|thumb|left|Christmas tree in [[Rovaniemi]], [[Finland]].]] Finnish people clean their homes well before Christmas and prepare special treats for the festive holiday season. Fir trees are cut or bought from a market and taken to homes on or a few days before [[Christmas Eve]] and are decorated beautifully. A sheaf of grain, nuts and seeds are tied on a pole, which is placed in the garden for the birds to feed on. Christmas dinner traditionally begins with the appearance of the first star in the sky. Candles are lit on the Christmas tree, which is traditionally decorated using apples and other fruits, candies, paper flags, cotton and tinsel. Just before the Christmas festivities begin, people traditionally go to the sauna and dress up in clean clothes for the Christmas dinner, which is usually served at 5 pm to 7pm. Christmas gifts are usually exchanged after the dinner. Children do not hang up stockings in Finland but Santa visits the household with a Christmas elf to help him distribute the presents. The main traditional dish of the Christmas dinner is [[lutefisk|boiled codfish]] (soaked beforehand in a lye solution for a week to soften it) served snowy white and fluffy, roast suckling pig or a roasted fresh ham and vegetables. It is accompanied by allspice, boiled potatoes, and cream sauce. Christmas Day services begin early at six in the morning and people visit families and reunions are arranged on this day. Everybody wishes each other "Merry Christmas." ====Norway==== {{main|Jul (Norway)}} The major day of celebration in [[Norway]], as in most of Northern Europe, is [[December 24]]. Although it is legally a regular workday until 16:00<ref>[http://odin.dep.no/kkd/norsk/tema/kirke/helligdagsloven/bn.html]</ref>, most stores close early. Church bells toll in the Christmas festival in the afternoon, and many people attend the church service thereafter. In some families the Christmas story from Luke 2 will be read from the old family Bible. The main Christmas meal is served in the evening. Common main dishes include [[pork]] rib, "[[pinnekjøtt]]" (pieces of [[Lamb (food)|lamb]] rib steamed over [[birch]] branches), and in some western areas burned sheep's head. Many people also eat "[[lutefisk]]" or fresh, poached [[cod]]. Rice porridge is also popular (but most commonly served the day after rather than for the main Christmas dinner), an [[almond]] is often hidden in the porridge, and the person who finds it wins a treat or small gift. In some parts of Norway it is common to place porridge outside (in a barn, outhouse or even in the forest) to please "Julenissen". In many families, where the parents grew up with different traditions, two different main dishes are served to please everyone. For a lot of Norwegians, especially families, [[television]] is an important part of the earlier hours of Christmas Eve. Many Norwegians do not feel the Christmas spirit until they have watched the [[Czech people|Czech]]-[[German people|German]] fairy tale ''[[Tři oříšky pro Popelku|Three Nuts for Cinderella]]'' (Norwegian title: ''Tre nøtter til Askepott'') and the [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] Christmas cavalcade.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} If children are present (and they have behaved well the last year), "Julenissen" (Santa Claus) pays a visit, otherwise gifts stored under the Christmas tree. [[December 25]] is a very quiet and relaxed day. Church services are well attended. The old tradition of a very early morning service before breakfast has been replaced in most areas by a service in the later morning. Afterwards many families get together for a large festive meal. [[December 26]] is also a day of many festivities. Cinemas, night clubs and bars are full, and there are lots of private gatherings and parties, where all kinds of traditional [[Christmas cookies]] and sweets are enjoyed. Fatty, tasty dinners are also part of it. The time between Boxing Day and New Year's Eve is called [[:wikt:romjul|romjul]]. During this time children in the western parts of Norway dress up with masks and go "Julebukk" - "Christmas goat" - asking for treats, much the same way as in the American [[Halloween]]. [[January 13]] (20th day of Christmas, called St. Knuts Day) is the official end of Christmas. ====Sweden==== [[Image:Herrnhuter Sterne.jpg|thumb|right|anchor|200px|Christmas lights]] [[Image:Gavle christmas billy goat.jpg|200px|thumb|Julbock, a giant Christmas goat at the Gävle town market, Sweden]] Swedish Christmas celebrations begin with the first of [[Advent]]. [[Saint Lucy's Day]] (locally known as ''Luciadagen'') which is the first major Christmas celebration before Christmas itself. Electric candles and glowing stars are placed in almost every window in December month in Sweden. As in many other countries in [[Northern Europe]], the [[Tomte|Jultomte]] (or simply [[Tomte]]) brings the presents on December 24, [[December 24|Christmas Eve]], the day generally thought of as Christmas, see [[Yule]]. The [[Tomte|Jultomte]] was originally a small invisible Christmas house gnome or dwarf from the Nordic mythology, who watched over the house and its inhabitants. An old superstition still calls for feeding the Tomte on Christmas Eve with a small bowl of porrige. If a bowl of porrige is not laid out for him somewhere in or outside the house, he will bring bad luck to everyone in the house the next year. The modern [[Tomte|Jultomte]], nowadays is a version of Santa Claus in red cloth and white beard, except that he doesn't enter the house through the chimney, but knocks on the door and asks "finns det några snälla barn här?" (are there any good children here?) Christmas is, as everywhere else, a holiday celebrated with food. Almost all Swedish families celebrate on December 24 with a Christmas table, called Christmas [[smörgåsbord]] (''[[julbord]]''), a display of several Christmas food items. Almost all julbord has Christmas ham, (''[[julskinka]]'') accompanied of other Christmas dishes, such as small [[meatballs]], [[pickled herring]], [[spareribs]], small hot dogs, [[lutfisk]], pork sausage, salmon, [[Janssons frestelse]] (potatocasserole with anchovy), and [[rice pudding]]. The Christmas julbord is served with [[julmust]] and beverage like mulled wine, Christmas [[beer]] or [[snaps]]. A Scandinavian speciality is the ''[[glogg|glögg]]'' (mulled and spiced wine with almonds and raisins), which is served hot in small cups. The different dishes of the julbord may vary throughout [[Sweden]], from South to North. Businesses traditionally invite their employees to a julbord dinner or lunch the weeks before Christmas, and people go out privately to restaurants which are customarily offering julbord during December, as well. [[Image:N2 Christmas tree.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Christmas tree in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]]] Examples of candies and treats associated with Christmas are [[marzipan]], [[toffee]], [[knäck]] (quite similar to butterscotch), [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]s and [[fruit]]s: [[fig]]s, [[chocolate]], [[date palm|date]]s and oranges decorated with cloves. Television also plays a big role in most families, the [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] Christmas special and [[Karl Bertil Jonssons julafton]] (animated short) are regarded by many to be the most important highlights of the Christmas television programming. After the julbord on Christmas Eve, the presents are distributed, either by [[Tomte|Jultomten]] or a family member, and usually from a sack or from under the Christmas tree where they have been lying all day or for several days. Many Swedes still adhere to the tradition that each present should have a rhyme written on the wrapping paper, to hint at the contents without revealing them.<ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TRAVEL/DESTINATIONS/12/22/sweden.christmas/ With food, drink and candles, Sweden embraces Christmas] [[CNN.com]], retrieved 2008-12-02</ref> In older days a [[yule goat]] was an alternative to Jultomten, nowadays it is used as an ornament, ranging from sizes of 10&nbsp;cm to huge constructions like the giant straw [[Gävle goat]], famous for being vandalized and burned down almost every Christmas. If one has two families to celebrate Christmas with, it is common that one of the families move their celebrations to Christmas Day or the day before Christmas Eve (commonly referred to as ''little Christmas Eve''). After Christmas Eve, the Christmas celebrations have more or less come to an end. Some people attend the [[julottan]], an early morning church service on [[Christmas Day]]. [[Christmas Day]] and [[Boxing Day]] are of no big significance to Swedish celebrations. On [[January 13]] (locally known as ''knutdagen''), 20 days after Christmas, the Christmas celebrations come to an end and all Christmas decorations are removed. ===Southeastern Europe (Balkans)=== ====Bulgaria==== [[Image:Sofia TZUM night.JPG|thumb|left|220px|TZUM department store at Christmastime,[http://www.tzum.bg/en/index.html/ TZUM] [[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]]]] In [[Bulgaria]], Christmas ({{lang-bg|Коледа}}, ''[[Koleda]]'' or more formally Рождество Христово, ''Rozhdestvo Hristovo'', "Nativity of Jesus") is celebrated on [[25 December] and is preceded by Christmas Eve (Бъдни вечер, ''Badni vecher''). Traditionally, Christmas Eve would be the climax of the [[Nativity Fast]], and thus only an odd number of lenten dishes are presented on that evening. On Christmas, however, meat dishes are already allowed and are typically served. Among the Bulgarian Christmas traditions is [[koleduvane]], which involves boy carolers (коледари, ''koledari'') visiting the neighbouring houses starting at [[midnight]] on Christmas Eve, wishing health, wealth and happiness and patting the backs of the people with decorated cornel sticks (сур(о)вачка, ''sur(o)vachka''). Another custom is the baking of a traditional round loaf (пита, ''[[pita]]''). As in other countries, a Christmas tree is typically set up and the entire house is decorated. The local name of Santa Claus is Dyado Koleda (Дядо Коледа, "Grandfather Christmas"), with [[Ded Moroz|Dyado Mraz]] (Дядо Мраз, "Grandfather Frost") being a similar Russian-imported character lacking the Christian connotations and thus popular during the Communist rule. However, it has been largely forgotten after 1989, when Dyado Koleda again returned as the more popular figure. ====Greece==== [[Image:Athens Christmas Tree.jpg|thumb|right|Christmas tree at [[Syntagma Square]], [[Athens]], [[Greece]]]] The festive period in [[Greece]] lasts from 25 December ([[Christmas]]) to 6 January ([[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]]). Most families set up Christmas trees and shops have decorations and lights. Presents are placed under the Christmas tree and are opened on New Year’s Day. In Greek tradition, [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil’s (of Caesarea)]] name was given to [[Father Christmas]] and is supposed to visit children and give presents on New Year’s Day (when Basil's memory is celebrated), unlike other European traditions, where this person is [[Saint Nicholas]] and comes every Christmas. Carol singing is another tradition on Christmas and New Year’s Eve. The Christmas meal usually includes lamb or pork and desserts such as [[kourabies]] (κουραμπιές) and melomakarona (μελομακάρονα). ====Romania==== [[Christmas]] ([[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''Crăciun'' &ndash; presumably from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''creatio, -onis'' meaning "birth") in [[Romania]] falls on [[December 25]] and is generally considered the second most important religious [[holiday]], after [[Easter]]. Celebrations begin with the decoration of the Christmas tree during daytime on 24 December, and in the evening (Christmas Eve, in Romanian: Ajunul Crăciunului) ''Moş Crăciun'' ([[Father Christmas]]) delivers the presents. The singing of [[Christmas carols|carols]] is a very important part of Romanian Christmas festivities. On the first day of Christmas, many carolers walk through the streets of the towns and villages, holding a star made of cardboard and paper on which are depicted various scenes from the [[Bible]]. Romanian tradition has the smallest children going from house to house, singing carols and reciting poems and legends during the whole Christmas season. The leader of the group carries with him a star made of wood, covered with metal foil and decorated with bells and coloured ribbons. An image of the [[Nativity of Jesus in art|Nativity]] is painted on the star's centre, and this piece of handiwork is attached to the end of a broom or other long stick. ====Serbia, Republika Srpska, and Montenegro==== {{main|Serbian Christmas traditions}} The [[Serbs]] celebrate Christmas for three consecutive days, beginning with Christmas Day. The [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] uses the traditional [[Julian Calendar]], as per which Christmas Day (December 25) falls currently on January 7 of the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. This day is called by Serbs the first day of Christmas, and the following two are accordingly called the second, and the third day of Christmas. During this festive time, one is to greet another person with “Christ is Born,” which should be responded to with “Truly He is Born.” The [[Serbian language|Serbian]] name for Christmas is ''Božić'' ([[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]]: Божић, {{IPA-sh|ˈboʒitɕ|pron}}), which means the young or little God. This holiday surpasses all the other celebrated by Serbs, with respect to the diversity of applied [[Tradition|folk customs]] and [[ritual]]s. These may vary from region to region, some of them having modern versions adapted to the contemporary way of living. The ideal environment to carry them out fully is the traditional multi-generation country household. In the morning of Christmas Eve an [[Oak|oak tree]] is felled, and a log cut from it is in the evening ceremoniously put on the domestic fire. A bundle of straw is taken into the house and spread over the floor. The dinner on this day is festive, copious and diverse in foods, although it is prepared in accordance with the rules of fasting. Groups of young people go from house to house of their village or neighborhood, congratulating the holiday, singing, and making performances; this continues through the next three days. On Christmas Day, the celebration is announced at dawn by church bells and by shooting. A big importance is given to the first visit a family receives that day. People expect that it will summon prosperity and well-being for their household in the ensuing year; this visit is often pre-arranged. Christmas dinner is the most celebratory meal a family has during a year. A special, festive loaf of bread is baked for this occasion. The main course is roast pork of a pig which they cook whole by rotating it impaled on a wooden spit close to an open fire. It is not a part of Serbian traditions to exchange gifts during Christmas. Gift giving is, nevertheless, connected with the holiday, being traditionally done on the three consecutive Sundays that immediately precede it. Children, women, and men, respectively, are the set gift-givers on these three days. ===Southern Europe=== ====Malta==== Christmas (or Il-Milied, as it's known in Maltese) in Malta is mainly a religious affair since most of the population is Roman Catholic. However over the years, the island has adopted other popular Christmas customs and traditions such as the Christmas tree and Father Christmas. Christmas cribs are a popular Xmas tradition with some nativity scenes being literally works of art. Christmas Day in Malta is a time to spend with family. Christmas lunch usually consists of turkey served with potatoes and vegetables. A local Christmas specialty are the "Qaghaq ta' l-Ghasel" or Honey Rings. These Maltese Christmas Sweets are eaten as a dessert during the Christmas season but can also be purchased all year round. ====Italy==== [[Image:DSC01654 - Piazza Duomo, Milano - Foto di G. Dall'Orto - 20-12-2006.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Christmas decorations in [[Milan]], [[Italy]].]] Modern traditions combine with holdovers from their Roman forebears in the celebrations of Natale, the Italian Christmas. The pagan feast of Saturnalia coincides with the Christian advent, and the holiday season there spans from these weeks through Epiphany, a Christian holiday on January 6 celebrating the visit of the Magi to the infant Jesus. Christmas is celebrated in Italy similarly to other Western European countries, albeit with a stronger emphasis given by the media to the Christian meaning of the holiday and its celebration by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], also reinforced by the still widespread tradition of setting up the ''[[nativity scene|presepe]]'', a tradition initiated by [[Saint Francis of Assisi]]. On Christmas Eve ("''Vigilia di Natale''") dinner traditionally consists of seafood, with the "[[feast of the seven fishes]]" surviving mostly in the South, and is followed by typical Italian Christmas sweets, such as [[pandoro]], [[panettone]], [[torrone]], [[panforte]], [[struffoli]], [[caggionetti]] or others, depending on the regional cuisine. In Italy they don't eat meat 24 hours before Christmas Eve. The way to say "Merry Christmas" in Italian is "Buon Natale". Italians decorate a ceppo which is a wooden frame and at the bottom it has a manger scene. On midnight, tradition holds that presents are left for good-behaving children under the family Christmas tree either by ''Babbo Natale'' (literally "''Father Christmas''", the local name of Santa Claus in his common [[Coca Cola]]-inspired depiction) or by ''Gesù Bambino'' (baby Jesus) himself, and these will be opened on Christmas morning. Adults exchange gifts too, and if no children are present, these may be opened at midnight, after the Christmas Eve dinner, or when coming back home from the Midnight Mass, for those who attend it. December 26, [[St. Stephen's Day]], is also a public holiday in Italy. The festivities naturally extend to the end of the year and then to the ''Epifania'' ([[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]]), in which "''[[la Befana]]''", the benevolent hag, is said to bring sweets and gifts to good children and [[charcoal]] or bags of ashes to naughty children in the night between the 5th and 6th of January. ====Portugal==== [[Christmas]] in [[Portugal]] is widely celebrated and is associated with family gathering. On [[Christmas Eve]] the traditional dish is usually [[cod]]. the three wise men deliver presents not santa. ====Spain==== [[Image:Spain.Barcelona.Porta.Angel.Navidad.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Calle Porta de l'Angel , at Christmastime, [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]]]] In [[Spain]], the [[Christmas]] holidays last from [[December 24]] to [[January 6]] and are referred to as "Navidad". Most homes and churches display a Nativity scene. A large family dinner is celebrated on [[Christmas Eve]] (Nochebuena) and can last until 6 o' clock in the morning. Even though there is still the traditional [[Misa del Gallo]] at midnight, few Spaniards continue to follow the old custom of attending. Children will usually receive one or two presents on [[Christmas Day]], brought by "Papá Noel" (Father Noel), which is a non-traditional imitation of the American [[Santa Claus]]. On [[December 31]] (Nochevieja,) there is also a large family feast. On [[January 5]], a huge parade (La Cabalgata or [[cavalcade]]) welcomes the [[Three Kings]] to the city. Children put their shoes in the window on [[January 5]] in hopes that the [[Three Wise Men]] deliver them presents.<ref>''Christmas.'' World Book encyclopedia. 2003 edition. Volume Ch. P. 531</ref> ===Western Europe=== ====Basque Country==== The [[Basque people]], who live in Northern Spain and Southern France, have their own traditions at Christmas. The [[Three Wise Men]] are popular in the South and Père Noël in the North, but there is also another character which is well known in both sides of the [[Pyrenees]], called [[Olentzero]]. Olentzero was a pagan coal worker who went to adore Jesus in Bethlehem. Nowadays, it is said that he brings presents to all good people at Christmas Eve. ====France==== [[Image:ChampsElysee.jpg|thumb|left|Christmas decorations at [[Champs-Élysées]] in [[Paris]], [[France]]]] Christmas in [[France]] is celebrated mainly in a religious manner, though some secular ways of celebrating the holiday also exist. Children put their shoes by the fireplace so ''Père Noël'' (Father Christmas or Santa Claus) can give them gifts, as opposed to the American variation of hanging [[Christmas stockings]] on the fireplace's [[mantle]]. Many French families also decorate their homes with Nativity Scenes depicting the birth of [[Jesus]]. Many families attend midnight mass. Some people put additional ''Santons'' (little saints) in their nativity scenes, which are bought at special Christmas fairs before the holidays.<ref>"Christmas" World Book encyclopedia 2003 edition. Volume "Ch" P.530</ref> ====Ireland==== Christmas in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] is the largest celebration of the year and lasts from [[24 December]] to [[6 January]], although many may view [[8 December]] as being the start of the season as it is the traditional Christmas shopping day in Ireland due to all schools being closed. It plays an extremely important role in both religious and secular aspects of Irish life. Although religious devotion in Ireland today is considerably less than it used to be, there are huge attendances at religious services for Christmas Day, with [[Christmas Eve|Midnight Mass]] a popular choice. Most families get their deceased relatives prayed for at these Masses as it is a time of remembering the dead in Ireland. It is traditional to decorate graves at Christmas with a wreath made of [[holly]] and [[ivy]]. Even in the most un-devout of homes in Ireland the traditional crib takes centre-piece along with the Christmas tree as part of the family's decorations. In the secular side of Irish society, Christmas is the biggest event of the year. Almost the entire workforce is finished by lunchtime on [[Christmas Eve]] or often a few days beforehand. [[Christmas Day]] and [[St. Stephen's Day]] are public holidays and many people do not return to work until after [[New Year's Day]]. Irish people spend more and more money each year on celebrating Christmas. In 2006, the total amount spent in Ireland to celebrate Christmas was €16 billion<ref>[http://www.unison.ie/irish_independent/index.php3?ca=43&issue_id=11790 News Ireland | Irish News Paper | Free News Stories Online from The Irish Independent Newspaper - Independent.ie]</ref>, which averages at approximately €4,000 for every single person in the country. [[Santa Claus]], known in Ireland simply as Santy or ''Daidí na Nollag'' in [[Irish language|Irish]], brings presents to children in Ireland, which are opened on Christmas morning. Family and friends also give each other gifts at Christmas. The traditional Christmas dinner consists of turkey or goose and ham with a selection of vegetables and a variety of potatoes, as potatoes still act as a staple food in Ireland despite the popularization of staples such as [[rice]] and [[pasta]]. Dessert is a very rich selection of Christmas pudding, Christmas cake, and mince pies with equally rich sauces such as brandy butter. Christmas celebrations in Ireland finish with the celebration of [[Little Christmas]] also known as Oíche Nollaig na mBan in Irish on [[6 January]]. This festival, which coincides with the [[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]], is also known as ''Women's Christmas'' in [[County Cork|Cork]]. ====The Netherlands and Belgium==== [[File:Sinterklaas 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Sinterklaas]] in the [[Netherlands]]]] In the [[Netherlands]] and some parts of northwestern [[Germany]], the celebration of [[Saint Nicholas Day]] on December 5 resembles the Christmas of the English-speaking world., The Dutch ''Sinterklaas'' based on the real [[Saint Nicholas]], from whom the English and American Santa evolved, who brings presents to the children in many European countries. Sinterklaas wears a tall bishop's hat and carries a crooked staff. He is said to reside in [[Spain]], and in mid-November he arrives to the Netherlands by steamboat, an event which is often acted out in the many coastal communities of the [[Low Countries]]. Dutch children leave their shoes out on many nights in the run-up to the actual celebration, to find them filled with small treats. On the evening of the 5th December every child who was good, gets presents in their shoes. The presents were traditionally left in the child's wooden shoes (the Dutch [[Klompen]]). The Dutch ''Sinterklaas'' wears a red bishop's dress with a red mitre, rides a white horse over the rooftops, and is assisted by many mischievous helpers called 'zwarte Pieten' (black Peters). If the child had been naughty, the 'zwarte Pieten' would put the child in a sack and drag them to the coal mines. [[Walloons]] call Sint Nicolaas ''Saint Nicolas'' and Zwarte Piet ''Père Fouettard'' (Whipping Father). In some parts of [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and [[Switzerland]], the frightening [[Knecht Ruprecht]] also appears, to the chagrin of many children. In the Netherlands and Belgium [[December 6]] are traditionally recognized as the main gift-giving days of the Low Countries, with [[December 25]] being a lower-key, more religious event. In recent years, the Dutch and Belgian popular cultures have also incorporated Santa Claus into their traditions, with him and Sinterklaas being recognized as two distinct characters. When it comes to giving presents, ''Sinterklaasavond'' (St. Nicholas Evening, 5 December) remains more important in [[the Netherlands]] than Christmas, although in recent years, the Dutch have started to celebrate Christmas Eve with Santa as well. This sparks a minor controversy each year over when it is more "appropriate" to start celebrating Christmas: people that give presents at Christmas usually buy much more expensive items, so many shopkeepers prefer to start the lucrative Christmas season immediately after Sinterklaasavond (sometimes putting up decorations even earlier) while others argue that the "foreign" and "commercial" Christmas impinges too much on the traditional Sinterklaas celebrations. Considering the ancestry of Santa Claus, it has been said that Sinterklaas is in competition with himself in this country. Large numbers of practicing [[Christian]]s and others with a Christian background, attend church for Christmas. The [[Roman Catholic]] service is on Christmas Eve, while the Protestant churches usually conduct their Christmas service on 25 December. This service is usually kept somewhat simpler than normal services, with more attention on the children and the singing of famous old Christmas hymns. Since the late 20th century, some Protestant churches have held services on Christmas Eve. Due to a decline in church attendance in recent decades, many old churches have closed. However, as large numbers of people continue to attend Christmas church services, the remaining churches are often too small to accommodate all congregants. ====United Kingdom==== [[Image:Trafalgar Square Christmas Carols - Dec 2006.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Christmas Tree and Carolers at [[Trafalgar Square]] in [[London]], [[UK]]]] In the [[United Kingdom]] the traditions are quite similar to those of [[Australia]], [[Ireland]], [[North America]] and [[New Zealand]], and all other Commonwealth traditions as they stemmed from the UK. They are also similar to the other countries of Northern and Western Europe. The Christmas season starts at [[Advent]], where [[holly]] [[wreath]]s are made with three pink, one white and one purple candle. However many shops sell Christmas decorations beforehand. It lasts until [[6 January]] ([[Epiphany (holiday)|Epiphany]]), as it is considered bad luck to have Christmas decorations up after this date. On Christmas Eve, presents are supposedly delivered in stockings and under the Christmas tree by [[Father Christmas]], who previously had been something like [[The Ghost of Christmas Present]] in [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'', but has now become mainly conflated with [[Santa Claus]]. The two names are now used interchangeably and equally known to British people, but [[Father Christmas]] tends to be used more often, and some distinctive features still remain. Many families tell their children traditional Christmas stories, about Father Christmas and his [[reindeer]]. One tradition is to put out a plate of Carrots (for the reindeer) and [[Mince pies]] and [[sherry]] for Father Christmas, to help him on his way. On Christmas Day, nearly the whole population has the day off to be with their family and friends, so they can gather around for a traditional Christmas meal, which is mainly a [[turkey]] or other meats, along with cranberries, [[parsnip]]s, [[roast potato]]es, quite like the [[Sunday roast]], followed by a [[Christmas Pudding]]. During the meal, [[Christmas crackers]] are often pulled containing toys, jokes and a paper hat. Another tradition is Carol singing, where many [[carol]]s are sung by children on people's doorsteps, and by professional choirs. Other traditions include sending [[Christmas card]]s. On the whole, although Christmas has become commercialized, the British Christmas is still very traditional. In public, most shops have decorations and lights, especially in town centres, where the whole community chips in, even in Indian and Chinese restaurants. Churches and [[Cathedral]]s across the country hold masses, with many people, going to [[midnight mass]], or a service on Christmas morning. Even though mainline church attendance has been falling over the decades, many people who don't go to church often think it is still important to go on Christmas, so Church attendance increases significantly. Notably, for Catholics, it is one of the main [[Holy Days of Obligation]]. Christmas in [[Scotland]] was traditionally observed very quietly, because the [[Church of Scotland]] - a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] Church - never placed any great emphasis on the Christmas festival, for various reasons. [[Hogmanay]] is traditionally the largest celebration in Scotland, because Christmas Day was a normal working day in Scotland until the 1960s and even into the 1970s in some areas. The gift-giving, public holidays and feasting associated with mid-winter were held between the [[31 December]] and [[2 January]] rather than between [[24 December]] and [[26 December]]. However, since the 1980s, and the fading of the Church's influence as well as influences from outside Scotland due to immigration and the media, Christmas and related festivities are now on a par with Hogmanay and "Ne'erday". The capital city of Edinburgh has a traditional German market from late November until Christmas Eve. [[Image:Regent Street Christmas Lights - Dec 2006.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Christmas lights on [[Regent Street]], [[London]], [[England]]]] Many [[London]] and provincial [[theatre]]s have a tradition of "putting on" a Christmas [[pantomime]] for children. The pantomime stories are traditionally based on popular [[children's stories]] such as [[Little Red Riding Hood]] and [[Aladdin]], rather than being directly concerned with the Christmas story as such, although there is sometimes a link. Television is widely watched: for many television networks, Christmas Day is the most important day of the year in terms or ratings. Many Britons still watch the Queen's annual [[Royal Christmas Message|Christmas message]]. The Celebration of [[Boxing Day]] on the day after Christmas Day is a tradition practiced in the UK. It is a [[bank holiday]], and if it happens to fall on a weekend, then a special Bank Holiday Monday will occur. ==Africa== ===Democratic Republic of the Congo=== In most parts of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], Christmas is the most important holiday of the year. ===Nigeria=== '''Christmas Day''' is a [[public holiday]] which is celebrated mainly in the southern and eastern parts of [[Nigeria]]. Nigerians have special traditions they employ to celebrate Christmas. Almost everyone goes to church on [[Christmas Day]]. Weeks before the day, people buy lots of hens, turkeys, goats and cows. Children hover around the beasts, taunting, and mostly gawking at them. There are feverish preparations for travel, holiday, and exchange of gifts, caroling and all manner of celebration. On [[Christmas Eve]], traditional meals are prepared. In Yoruba, such meals usually include '''Iyan''', (pounded [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]) [[eba]] or [[amala (food)|amala]], served with peppery stewed vegetables. People find themselves eating this same meal three to four times on that day, as they are offered it at every house they visit; and according to [[Yoruba people|Yorùbá]] customs, it was considered rude to decline to eat when offered food. Other meals include rice served with chicken stew, which is a bit similar to the [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] [[curry]] stew. Some families would include a delicacy called '''Moin-moin'''; which is blended black eyed beans, mixed with vegetable oil and diced liver, prawns, chicken, fish and beef. The concoction is then wrapped in large leaves and then steamed until cooked. Another tradition is that of decorating homes (compounds) and churches with both woven and unwoven [[arecaceae|palm]] fronds, [[Christmas trees]] and Christmas lights. There are the festive jubilations on the streets, the loud crackling of fireworks and luminous starry fire crackers going off, traditional masquerades on stilts parading about and children milling about displaying their best clothes, or Christmas presents. There are no other celebrations that compare to Christmas festivities in Nigeria, where everyone can personalize their own festival, and one family’s gusto merges with others; both physically and psychologically, creating a universe of fun and bonhomie. ==Books== * Penne L. Restad, ''Christmas in America: A History'', New York, Oxford University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-19-509300-3 ==See also== * [[Christmas gift-bringers around the world]] * [[List of Christmas dishes]] * [[List of winter festivals]] * [[Christmas market]] * [[Christmas tree]] * [[Christmas card]] * [[Christmas dinner]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== {{Christmas portal}} * [http://www.santas.net/czechchristmas.htm Christmas in Czech Republic] * [http://www.speekee.co.uk/resources/spanish/christmas.php Christmas in Spain] * [http://www.worldofchristmas.net/christmas-world/sweden.html Christmas in Sweden] * [http://www.robpongi.com/pages/comboJXMASHI.html Christmas in Japan] * [http://www.visitingeu.com/western-europe/france/2007/12/best-paris-christmas-markets.html Christmas Markets in Paris] {{Commonscat}} {{Christmas}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Spinning mule 2009-07-30T13:58:37Z 2009-07-30T13:58:37 2009-07-30T13:58:37Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> The '''spinning mule''' was invented in 1779 by [[Samuel Crompton]]. It spins textile fibres into yarn by an intermittent process: in the draw stroke, the roving is pulled through and twisted; on the return it is wrapped onto the spindle. Its rival, the [[throstle frame]] or [[Ring spinning|ring frame]] uses a continuous process, where the roving is drawn, twisted and wrapped in one action. The self-acting (automatic) spinning mule was developed in the 1830s. The mule was the most common spinning machine from 1790 until about 1900 and was still used for fine yarns until the 1960s. In 1890, a typical cotton mill would have over 60 mules, each with 1320 spindles. ==History== Before the 1770s, textile production was a [[cottage industry]] using [[flax]] and [[wool]]. In a typical house, the girls and women could make enough [[yarn]] for the man's [[loom]]. But demand overtook supply due to: * pressure to compete with cotton [[calico]]s from India. * the invention by [[John Kay]] of the [[flying shuttle]] (which made the loom twice as productive). Two systems were developed from the spinning wheel: the [[Spinning wheel|Simple Wheel]], which uses an '''intermittent''' process and the more refined [[Saxony wheel]] which drives a differential [[spindle]] and flyer with heck, in a '''continuous''' process. Development was sponsored by businessmen such as [[Arkwright]] who employed inventors, then took out the relevant patents. The increased supply of yarn inspired developments in loom design such as Rev. [[Cartwright]]'s [[power loom]]. Some spinners and handloom weavers opposed the perceived threat to their livelihood: there were frame-breaking riots and, in 1811-3, the [[Luddism]] riots. The preparatory and associated tasks allowed many [[Child labour|children to be employed]] until this was regulated. The hand operated mule was a breakthrough in yarn production and the machines were copied by [[Samuel Slater]] who founded the cotton industry in [[Rhode Island]]. Development over the next century and a half led to an automatic mule and to finer and stronger yarn. The [[ring spinning|ring frame]], originating in New England in the 1820s was little used in Lancashire until the 1890s. It used more energy and could not produce the finest counts. ===The first mule=== In 1779 [[Samuel Crompton]] invented the '''spinning mule''' or '''mule jenny''', so called because it is a hybrid of [[Arkwright]]'s [[Water Frame|water frame]] and [[James Hargreaves|Hargreaves]]' [[spinning jenny]]. The mule has a fixed frame with a creel of bobbins to hold the roving, connected through the headstock to a parallel carriage with the spindles. On the outward motion, the rovings are paid out and twisted. On the return, the roving is clamped and the spindles reversed to take up the newly spun thread. Crompton built his mule from wood. Although he used Hargreaves' ideas of spinning multiple threads and of attenuating the roving with rollers, it was he who put the spindles on the carriage and fixed a creel of roving bobbins on the frame. Both the rollers and the outward motion of the carriage remove irregularities from the rove before it is wound on the spindle. When Arkwright's patents expired, the mule was developed by several manufacturers. The mule produced strong, thin [[yarn]], suitable for any kind of [[textile]]. It was first used to spin [[cotton]], then other fibres. Samuel Crompton could not afford to [[patent]] his invention. He sold the rights to [[David Dale]] and returned to weaving. Dale patented the mule and profited from it. ===Improvements=== *Stone-metal rollers *Baker - drums *James Hargreaves of Tottington - parallel scroll '''1790''' *Kelly of Glasgow - a method of using power to assist the draw stroke .First animals and then water. *Wright of Manchester - moved the head stock to the centre of the machine allowing twice as many spindles, a squaring band was added to ensure the spindles came out in a straight line '''1793''' *Kennedy addressed the problem of finer counts. With these the spindles on the return traverse needed to rotate faster than on the outward traverse. He attached gears and a clutch to implement this motion '''1818''' *William Eaton - improve the winding of the thread by using two faller wires and performing a backing off at the end of the outward traverse. ===Roberts' self-acting mule=== [[Richard Roberts (engineer)|Richard Roberts]] took out his first patent in 1825, and a second in 1830. The task he had set himself was to design a selfactor, a self-acting or automatic spinning mule. Roberts is also known for the [[Roberts Loom]], which was widely adopted because of its reliability. The mule in 1820 still needed manual assistance to spin a consistent thread, a self acting mule needed to: *A reversing mechanism that would unwind a spiral of yarn on the top of each spindle, before commencing the winding of a new stretch *A faller wire that would ensure the yarn was wound into a predefined form such as a cop *An appliance to vary the speed of revolution of the spindle, in accordance with the diameter of thread on that spindle A counter faller under the thread was made to rise to take in the slack caused by backing off. This could be used with the top faller wire to guide the yarn to the correct place on the cop. These were controlled by levers and cams and an inclined plane called the shaper. The spindle speed was controlled by a drum and weighted ropes, as the headstock moved the ropes twisted the drum, which using a tooth wheel turned the spindles. None of this would have been possible using the technology of Crompton's time, fifty years earlier. ==Operation of a mule== Mule spindles rest on a carriage that travels on a track a distance of {{convert|60|in|m}}, while drawing out and spinning the yarn. On the return trip, known as putting up, as the carriage moves back to its original position, the newly spun yarn is wound onto the spindle, in the form of a cone-shaped cop. As the mule spindle travels on its carriage, the roving which it spins is fed to it through rollers geared to revolve at different speeds to draw out the yarn. Marsden in 1885 describes the processes of setting up and operating a mule. Here is his description, edited slightly. The [[creel]] holds bobbins containing [[roving]]s. The rovings are passed through small guide-wires, and between the three pairs of drawing-rollers. * The first pair takes hold of the roving — is simply to draw the roving or sliver from the bobbin, and deliver it to the next pair. * The motion of the middle pair is slightly quicker than the first, but only sufficiently so to keep the roving uniformly tense * The front pair, running much more quickly, draw out (attenuate) the roving so it is equal throughout. Connection is then established between the attenuated rovings and the spindles. When the latter are bare, as in a new mule, the spindle-driving motion is put into gear, and the attendants wind upon each spindle a short length of yarn from a cop held in the hand. The drawing-roller motion is placed in gear, and the rollers soon present lengths of attenuated roving. These are attached to the threads on the spindles, by simply placing the threads in contact with the un-twisted roving. The different parts of the machine are next simultaneously started, when the whole works in harmony together. The back rollers pull the sliver from the bobbins, and passing it to the succeeding pairs, whose differential speeds attenuate it to the required degree of fineness. As it is delivered in front, the spindles, revolving at a rate of 6,000-9,000 rpm twist the hitherto loose fibres together, thus forming a thread. Whilst this is going on, the spindle carriage is being drawn away from the rollers, at a pace very slightly exceeding the rate at which the roving is coming forth. This is called the ''' gain''' of the carriage, its purpose being to eliminate all irregularities in the fineness of the thread. Should a thick place in the roving come through the rollers, it would resist the efforts of the spindle to twist it; and, if passed in this condition, it would seriously deteriorate the quality of the yarn, and impede subsequent operations. As, however, the twist, spreading itself over the level thread, gives firmness to this portion, the thick and untwisted part yields to the draught of the spindle, and, as it approaches the tenuity of the remainder, it receives the twist it had hitherto refused to take. The carriage, which is borne upon wheels, continues its outward progress, until it reaches the ex- tremity of its traverse, which is {{convert|63|in|cm}} from the roller beam. The revolution of the spindles cease, the drawing rollers stop. Backing-off commences. This process is the unwinding of the several turns of the yarn, extending from the top of the cop in process of formation to the summit of the spindle. As this proceeds, the faller- wire, which is placed over and guides the threads upon the cop, is depressed ; the counter-faller at the same time rising, the slack unwound from the spindles is taken up, and the threads are prevented from running into snarls. Backing-off is completed. The carriage commences to run inwards; that is, towards the rollerbeam. This is called putting up. The spindles wind on the yarn at a uniform rate. The speed of revolution of the spindle must vary, as the faller is guiding the thread upon the larger or smaller diameter of the cone of the cop. Immediately the winding is finished, the depressed faller rises, the counter-faller is put down. These movements are repeated until the cops on each spindle are perfectly formed: the '''' set''' is completed.A stop-motion paralyzes every action of the machine, rendering it necessary to '''doff''' or strip the spindles, and to commence anew. Doffing is performed by the attendants raising the cops partially up the spindles, whilst the carriage is out; then depressing the faller, so far as to guide the threads upon the bare spindle below. A few turns are wound on, to fix the threads to the spindles for a new set, and then the cops are removed, being collected into cans or baskets, and subsequently delivered to the warehouse. The remainder of the "draw" or "stretch," as the length of spun yarn is called when the carriage is out, is then wound upon the spindles by the carriage being run up to the roller beam. Work then commences anew. ===Key components=== * Drawing rollers * Faller and counter faller ===Terminology=== {{main|Textile manufacturing terminology}} ==Social and economic== The spinning inventions were significant in enabling a great expansion to occur in the production of textiles, particularly cotton ones. Cotton and [[iron]] were leading sectors in the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Both industries underwent a great expansion at about the same time, which can be used to identify the start of the Industrial Revolution. The 1790 mule was operated by brute force: the spinner drawing and pushing the frame while attending to each spindle. Home spinning was the occupation of women and girls, but the strength needed to operate a mule, caused it to be the activity of men. Hand loom weaving however, had been a mans occupation but in the mill it could and was done by girls and women. Spinners were the bare-foot aristocrats of the factory system. Mule spinners were the leaders in unionism within the cotton industry, the pressure to develop the self-actor or self acting mule was partly to open the trade to women. It was in 1870. that the first national [[union]] was formed. The Wool industry was divided into [[woolen]] and [[worsted]]. It lagged behind cotton in adopting new technology. Worsted tended to adopt Arkwright water frames which could be operated by young girls, and woolen adopted the mule. ==See also== * [[Cotton mill]] * [[Textile manufacturing]] * [[Timeline of clothing and textiles technology]] * [[Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution]] *</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Flying shuttle 2009-07-30T13:56:20Z 2009-07-30T13:56:20 2009-07-30T13:56:20Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>[[Image:Shuttle with bobin.jpg|thumb|Flying shuttle showing metal capped ends, wheels, and a [[pirn]] of weft thread|100px]] The '''flying shuttle''' was one of the key developments in [[weaving]] that helped fuel the [[Industrial Revolution]]. It was patented by [[John Kay]] (1704 - 1764) in 1733. ==Before the flying shuttle== In order to understand the importance of this invention, it is useful to review the action of weaving prior to it. In a typical frame loom, the operator sits with the newly woven cloth before him. Using treadles or some other mechanism, the [[heddle]]s are raised and lowered to open the [[shed (weaving)|shed]] in the [[warp (weaving)|warp]] threads. The operator must then reach forward, holding the [[shuttle]] in one hand, and pass it through the shed; the shuttle carries a [[bobbin]] for the [[weft]]. The shuttle must then be caught in the other hand, the shed closed, and the [[beater (weaving)|beater]] pulled forward to push the weft into place. This action (called a "pick") requires a lot of bending forward over the fabric; more importantly, however, the coordination between the throwing and catching of the shuttle requires more than one operator if the width of the fabric exceeds that which can be reasonably reached across (typically {{convert|60|in|cm}} or less). ==How the flying shuttle works== In one respect, the term is misleading, as the shuttle itself is only a component in a new system attached to the loom as part of the beater. A board called the "race" runs along the front of the beater, from side to side, forming a track on which the shuttle runs. At each end of the race, there is a box which catches the shuttle at the end of its movement, and which contains a mechanism for propelling the shuttle on its return trip. The shuttle itself has some subtle differences from the older form. The ends of the shuttle are bullet-shaped and metal-capped, and the shuttle generally has rollers to reduce friction. The weft thread is made to exit from the end rather than the side, and the thread is stored on a "pirn" (a conical, one-ended, non-turning bobbin) to allow it to feed more easily. Finally, the flying shuttle is generally somewhat heavier, so as have sufficient inertia to carry it all the way through the shed. In manual operation, a cord runs to each box from a handle held by the operator. To start the pick, the shed is opened as before; however, instead of throwing the shuttle, the operator jerks the cord for the box containing the shuttle. This causes the mechanism in the box to shoot the shuttle along the race to the other box; then the shed is closed and the beater is used to complete the pick as before. The operator does not need to touch the shuttle until it needs to be reloaded, so fabrics of great width can be woven; but more importantly, the movements needed are greatly reduced. Even more important was the fact that this mechanism could be automated and powered; all the operator needed to do was monitor the machine for failures and keep it supplied with pirns of weft thread, a job that was simplified with the invention of the [[Northrop Loom]], which reloaded the shuttle automatically. Kay's son developed a modification that allowed the use of an array of different shuttles. ==Social effects== The increase in production due to the flying shuttle exceeded the capacity of the spinning industry of the day, and prompted development of powered spinning machines, beginning with the [[spinning jenny]] and the [[waterframe]], and culminating in the [[spinning mule]], which could produce strong, fine thread in the quantities needed. These innovations transformed the [[Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution|textile industry]] in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]. All were [[Luddite|attacked]] as threats to the livelihood of spinners and weavers, and Kay's patent was largely ignored. His home attacked, he fled to France and died there in poverty. The flying shuttle itself produced a new source of injuries; if deflected from its path, it could be shot clear of the machine, potentially striking workers. Turn of the century injury reports abound with instances in which eyes were lost or other injuries sustained, and in several instances (for example, an extended exchange in 1901) the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|British House of Commons]] was moved to take up the issue of installing guards and other contrivances to reduce these injuries. ==Obsolescence== The flying shuttle dominated commercial weaving through the middle of the twentieth century. By that time, other systems began to supplant it. The heavy shuttle was noisy and energy-inefficient (since the energy used to throw it was largely lost in the catching); also, its inertia limited the speed of the loom. Projectile and rapier looms eliminated the need to take the bobbin/pirn of thread through the shed; later, air- and water-jet looms reduced the weight of moving parts further. Flying shuttle looms are still used for some purposes, and old models remain in use.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Alois Senefelder 2009-07-30T13:49:53Z 2009-07-30T13:49:53 2009-07-30T13:49:53Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>'''Johann Alois Senefelder''' ([[6 November]] [[1771]], [[Prague]] &ndash; [[26 February]] [[1834]], [[Munich]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[actor]] and [[playwright]] who invented the [[printing]] technique of [[lithography]] in 1796. Born '''Aloys Johann Nepomuk Franz Senefelder''' in [[Prague]] where his actor father was appearing on stage. He was educated in [[Munich]] and won a scholarship to study [[law]] at [[Ingolstadt]]. The death of his father in 1791 forced him to leave his studies to support his mother and eight siblings, and he became an actor and wrote a successful play ''Connoisseur of Girls''. Problems with the printing of his play ''Mathilde von Altenstein'' caused him to fall into debt, and unable to afford to publish a new play he had written, Senefelder experimented with a novel etching technique using a greasy, acid resistant ink as a resist on a smooth fine-grained stone of [[Solnhofen limestone]]. He then discovered that this could be extended to allow printing from the flat surface of the stone alone, the first [[planographic]] process in printing. He joined with the André family of [[music]] publishers and gradually brought his technique into a workable form, perfecting both the chemical processes and the special form of [[printing press]] required for using the stones. He called it "stone printing" or "chemical printing", but the French name "lithography" became more widely adopted. He secured patent rights across Europe and publicized his findings in 1818 in ''Vollstandiges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerei'' which was translated in 1819 into French and English. ''A Complete Course of Lithography'' combined Senefelder's history of his own invention with a practical guide to lithography, and remained in print into the early 20th century. Senefelder was also able to exploit the potential of lithography as a medium for [[art]]. Unlike previous [[printmaking]] technique such as engraving which required advanced craft skills, lithography allowed the artist to draw directly onto the plate with familiar pens. As early as 1803 André published in [[London]] a portfolio of artists lithographs, entitled ''Specimens of Polyautography''. In 1837, lithography had been further developed to allow full colour printing from multiple plates, and [[chromolithography]] was the most important technique in colour printing until the introduction of [[process color]]. Senefelder was decorated by King Maximilian Joseph of [[Bavaria]] and a statue of him stands in the town of [[Solnhofen]], where lithographic stone is still quarried. A statue of Alois Senefelder by sculptor Rudolf Pohle was erected in 1892 in what was then known as Thusneldaplatz in Berlin. The name of the square was changed to Senefelderplatz in 1894. An [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]] station named [[Senefelderplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Senefelderplatz]] was opened in 1913. Alois Senefelder's contribution ranks alongside [[William Ged]]'s invention of [[stereotyping]], [[Friedrich Koenig]]'s steam press and [[Ottmar Mergenthaler]]'s [[linotype machine]] in its innovative effect. It made printing more affordable and available to more people, and was important in art and newspaper printing. It is fitting that Senefelder lived to see his process become widely adopted both for art printmaking and as the dominant method of pictorial reproduction in the printing industry. He is buried in the [[Alter Südfriedhof]] in Munich.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar 18th century inventions 2009-07-30T13:44:35Z 2009-07-30T13:44:35 2009-07-30T13:44:35Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>A list of 18th century inventions ====[[18th century]]==== * [[1701]]: [[Seed drill]]: [[Jethro Tull (agriculturist)|Jethro Tull]] * [[1705]]: [[Newcomen engine|Steam piston engine]]: [[Thomas Newcomen]] * [[1709]]: [[Piano]]: [[Bartolomeo Cristofori]] * [[1710]]: [[Thermometer]]: [[Ren頁ntoine Ferchault de R页mur]] * [[1711]]: [[Tuning fork]]: [[John Shore]] * [[1714]]: [[Mercury thermometer]]: [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] * [[1730]]: [[Mariner's quadrant]]: [[Thomas Godfrey (inventor)|Thomas Godfrey]] * [[1731]]: [[Sextant]]: [[John Hadley]] * [[1733]]: [[Flying shuttle]]: [[John Kay (Flying Shuttle)]] * [[1742]]: [[Franklin stove]]: [[Benjamin Franklin]] * [[1750]]: [[Flatboat]]: [[Jacob Yoder]] * [[1752]]: [[Lightning rod]]: [[Benjamin Franklin]] * [[1762]]: [[Iron smelting process]]: [[Jared Eliot]] * [[1767]]: [[Spinning jenny]]: [[James Hargreaves]] * [[1767]]: [[Carbonated water]]: [[Joseph Priestley]] * [[1769]]: [[Steam engine]]: [[James Watt]] * [[1769]]: [[Water Frame]]: [[Richard Arkwright]] * [[1775]]: [[Submarine]] [[Turtle (submarine)|Turtle]]: [[David Bushnell]] * [[1777]]: [[carding|Card teeth making machine]]: [[Oliver Evans]] * [[1777]]: [[Circular saw]]: [[Samuel Miller]] * [[1779]]: [[Spinning mule]]: [[Samuel Crompton]] * [[1785]]: [[Power loom]]: [[Edmund Cartwright]] * [[1785]]: [[Production line|Automatic flour mill]]: [[Oliver Evans]] * [[1783]]: [[Multitubular boiler engine]]: [[John Stevens (inventor)|John Stevens]] * [[1783]]: Hot air [[balloon]]: [[Montgolfier brothers]] * [[1784]]: [[Bifocals]]: [[Benjamin Franklin]] * [[1784]]: [[Shrapnel shell]]: [[Henry Shrapnel]] * [[1785]]: [[Parachute]]: [[Jean Pierre Blanchard]] * [[1787]]: Non-condensing high pressure [[Engine]]: [[Oliver Evans]] * [[1790]]: [[Cut and head nail machine]]: [[Jacob Perkins]] * [[1791]]: [[Steamboat]]: [[John Fitch]] * [[1791]]: [[Artificial Teeth]]: [[Nicholas Dubois De Chemant]] * [[1793]]: [[Cotton gin]]: [[Eli Whitney]] * [[1793]]: [[Optical telegraph]]: [[Claude Chappe]] * [[1797]]: [[Cast iron plow]]: [[Charles Newbold]] * [[1798]]: [[Vaccination]]: [[Edward Jenner]] * [[1798]]: [[Lithography]]: [[Alois Senefelder]] * [[1799]]: [[Seeding machine]]: [[Eliakim Spooner]]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar 18th century new 2009-07-30T13:16:38Z 2009-07-30T13:16:38 2009-07-30T13:16:38Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Centurybox|18}} The '''18th century''' lasted from [[1701]] to [[1800]] in the [[Gregorian calendar]], in accordance with the [[Anno Domini]]/[[Common Era]] numbering system. However, historians sometimes specifically define the 18th [[century]] otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as [[1715]]-[[1789]], denoting the period of time between the death of [[Louis XIV of France]] and the start of the [[French Revolution]] with an emphasis on directly interconnected events.<ref>{{cite book | author=Anderson, M. S.| title=Historians and the Eighteenth-Century Europe, 1715–1789|publisher=Oxford University Press| year=1979 | isbn=0198225482 | oclc=185538307}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Ribeiro, Aileen| title=Dress in Eighteenth-Century Europe 1715-1789 (revised edition)|publisher=Yale University Press| year=2002 | isbn=0300091516 | oclc=186413657}}</ref> To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century may run from the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]] to the [[battle of Waterloo]] in [[1815]]<ref>{{cite book | author=Marshall, P. J. (Editor)| title=The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century (Oxford History of the British Empire) |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA| year=2001 | isbn=0199246777 | oclc=174866045}}, "Introduction" by P. J. Marshall, page 1</ref> or even later.<ref>{{cite book | author=O'Gorman, Frank | title=The Long Eighteenth Century: British Political and Social History 1688-1832 (The Arnold History of Britain Series) |publisher=A Hodder Arnold Publication| year=1997 | isbn=0340567511 | oclc=243883533}}</ref> [[File:Prise de la Bastille.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Storming of the Bastille, [[July 14]], [[1789]], an iconic event of the [[French Revolution]]]][[File:Washington Crossing the Delaware.png|thumb|250px|Washington crossing the Delaware, [[December 25|Dec. 25]], [[1776]], an iconic event of the [[American Revolutionary War|American Revolution]]]] During the 18th century, the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] culminated in the French and American revolutions. Philosophy and science increased in prominence. Philosophers were dreaming about a better age without the christian fundamentalism of earlier centuries. This dream turned into a nightmare during the terror of Maximlien de Robespierre in the early 1790s. At first, the monarchies of Europe embraced enlightenment ideals, but with the French revolution, they were on the side of the counterrevolution. [[Great Britain]] became a major power worldwide with the defeat of France in the Americas in the 1760s and the conquest of large parts of India. However, Britain lost the USA after the American revolution. The [[industrial revolution]] started in Britain. Despite its modest beginnings in the 18th century, it would radically change human society and the geology of the surface of the earth. ==Events== ===[[1700–1709]]=== [[File:Poltava battle.jpg|thumb|[[Peter the Great]] in the [[Battle of Poltava]]]] [[File:Europa 1700 en.jpg|thumb|250px|Europe on the eve of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1700)]] [[File:Marlborough-duke-first.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough]], English general.]] * [[1700]]: The [[1700 Cascadia earthquake]] (magnitude 9) occurs off the coast of the [[Pacific Northwest]]; the coast of Japan is struck by a [[tsunami]]. * [[1700]]: [[Bridge of the Gods (geologic event)|Bridge of the Gods]] forms across the [[Columbia River]]. * [[1700]]-[[1721|21]]: [[Russia]] supplants [[Sweden]] as the dominant [[Baltic region|Baltic]] power after the [[Great Northern War]]. * [[1701]]-[[1714]]: [[War of the Spanish Succession]] was a conflict which involved most of [[Louis XIV#The Spanish Succession|Europe]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/wars_spanishsuccession.html |title=War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714 |publisher=Historyofwar.org |date= |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> * [[1701]]-[[1702]]: The ''[[Daily Courant]]'' and the ''The Norwich Post'' becomes the first daily newspapers in England. * [[1702]]: [[Forty-seven Ronin]] attack [[Kira Yoshinaka]] and then commit [[seppuku]] in Japan. * [[1702]]-[[1715]]: [[Camisard|Camisard Rebellion]] in [[France]]. * [[1703]]: [[Saint Petersburg]] founded by [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]. [[Russia]]n [[Capital (political)|capital]] until [[1918]]. *[[1703]]-[[1711]]: The [[Rákóczi's War for Independence|Rákóczi Uprising]] against the [[Habsburg Monarchy]]. * [[1704]]: End of Japan's [[Genroku]] period. * [[1707]]: [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] passed merging the [[Scotland|Scottish]] and the [[England|English]] Parliaments, thus establishing The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Historic uk – heritage of britain accommodation guide |url=http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/Scotland-History/ActofUnion.htm |title=The history of Scotland – The Act of Union 1707 |publisher=Historic-uk.com |date=2007-05-03 |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> * [[1707]]: After [[Aurangzeb]]'s death, the [[Mughal Empire]] enters a long decline and the [[Maratha Empire]] slowly replaces it. * [[1707]]: [[Mount Fuji]] erupts in Japan. * [[1707]]: [[War of 27 years]] between the Marathas and Mughals ends in India. * [[1708]]: [[Honourable East India Company|The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies]] and English Company Trading to the East Indies merged to form the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. * [[1708]]-[[1709]]: [[Famine]] kills one-third of [[East Prussia]]'s population. * [[Great Frost of 1709]]: Coldest winter in 500 years. * [[1709]]: [[Hotaki dynasty]] founded in Afghanistan. * [[1709]]: [[Charles XII of Sweden]] flees to Ottoman Empire after [[Peter I of Russia]] defeats his army at the [[Battle of Poltava]]. ===[[1710s]]=== [[File:Yoshimune.jpg‎|thumb|[[Tokugawa Yoshimune]], Shogun of Japan.]] * [[1710]]-[[1711]]: Ottoman Empire fights Russia in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1710–1711)|Russo-Turkish War]] * [[1713]]-[[1714]]: [[Tarabai]] establishes rival [[Maratha Empire]] government in [[Kolhapur]] against [[Chattrapati Shahu]]. * [[1714]]: Accession of [[George I of Great Britain|George I]], Elector of Hanover, to the throne of Great Britain. * [[1715]]: First [[Jacobite rising#The Rebellion/Rising of 1715 ('The Fifteen')|Jacobite rebellion]] breaks out * [[1715]]: [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] dies, leaving France deep in debt. * [[1715]]: [[Pope Clement XI]] [[Chinese Rites controversy#Pope Clement XI.27s decree|declares]] [[Catholicism]] and [[Confucianism]] incompatible. * [[1716]]: Establishment of the [[Sikh Confederacy]] along the [[India]] [[Pakistan]] border. * [[1718]]: City of [[New Orleans]] founded by the [[France|French]] in [[North America]] * [[1718]]: [[Blackbeard]] is killed by [[Robert Maynard]] in a North Carolina inlet on the inner side of [[Ocracoke Island]] * [[1718]]-[[1730]]: [[Tulip period]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] * [[1719]]: Spanish attempt to restart the [[Jacobite rising#The Rebellion/Rising of 1719 ('The Nineteen')|Jacobite rebellion]] fails. ===[[1720s]]=== * [[1720]]: [[The South Sea Company|The South Sea Bubble]] * [[1720]]: Spanish military embarks on the [[Villasur expedition]] from Mexico and travel into the [[Great Plains]] * [[1720]]–[[1721]]: The [[Great Plague of Marseille]] * [[1721]]: [[Robert Walpole]] became the first [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of Great Britain]] ([[de facto]]). * [[1721]]: [[Treaty of Nystad]] signed, ending the [[Great Northern War]]. * [[1721]]: [[Kangxi Emperor]] [[Chinese Rites controversy#Kangxi's ban|bans]] Christian Missionaries because of Pope Clement XI's decree. * [[1721]]: [[Church reform of Peter I|Peter I reforms]] the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] * [[1722]]: [[Pashtun|Afghans]] conquered Iran, ending the [[Safavids|Safavid dynasty]]. * [[1722]]: [[Kangxi Emperor]] of [[China]] died. * [[1722]]: [[Bartholomew Roberts]] is killed in a sea battle off the African coast. * [[1722]]–[[1723|23]]: [[Russo-Persian War, 1722-1723|Russo-Persian War]] * [[1722]]–[[1725]]: Controversy over [[William Wood (Mintmaster)|William Wood]]'s halfpence leads to the ''[[Drapier's Letters]]'' and begins the Irish economic independence from England movement. * [[1723]]: [[Slavery]] abolished in Russia. [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] converted the household [[Slavery in medieval Europe#Slavery in Russia|slaves]] into house [[serfs]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History |publisher=Britannica.com |date=1910-01-31 |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> * [[1723]]–[[1730]]: The "Great Disaster" – an invasion of [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] territories by the [[Dzungars]]. * [[1725]]: The [[Fula people|Fulani]] nomads took complete control of [[Kingdom of Fouta Djallon|Fuuta Jallon]] and set up the first of many [[Fula jihads|Fulani jihad states]] to come.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-620352/Usman-dan-Fodio |title=Usman dan Fodio (Fulani leader) |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> * [[1726]]: The enormous Chinese encyclopedia ''[[Gujin Tushu Jicheng]]'' of over 100 million written [[Chinese characters]] in over 800,000 pages is printed in 60 different copies using [[copper]]-based Chinese [[movable type]] [[printing]]. *[[1727]]–[[1729]]: [[Anglo-Spanish War (1727)|Anglo-Spanish War]] * [[1729]]–[[1735]]: [[Charles Wesley]] and [[John Wesley]] begin the [[Methodism]] in England ===[[1730s]]=== [[File:Portrait of the Qianlong Emperor in Court Dress.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Qianlong Emperor]]]] * [[1730]]: [[Mahmud I]] takes over Ottoman Empire after civilian unrest. * [[1730]]-[[1760]]: [[First Great Awakening]] takes place in Great Britain and North America. * [[1732]]-[[1734]]: [[Crimean Khanate|Crimean Tatar]] raids into Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/russia/milxcrimeantatars.html |title=List of Wars of the Crimean Tatars |publisher=Zum.de |date= |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> * [[1733]]-[[1738]]: [[War of the Polish Succession]]. * [[1735]]-[[1739]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)|Russo-Turkish War]]. * [[1735]]-[[1799]]: The [[Qianlong Emperor]] of China oversaw a huge expansion in territory. * [[1736]]: [[Nadir Shah]] assumed title of [[Shah]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and founded the [[Afsharid dynasty]]. Ruled until his death in [[1747]]. *[[1736]]: [[Qing Dynasty]] Chinese court painters recreate [[Zhang Zeduan]]'s classic [[panoramic painting]], ''[[Along the River During Qingming Festival]]''. * [[1738]]-[[1756]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] across the [[Sahel]], half the population of [[Timbuktu]] died.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/~lmilich/desclim.html |title=Len Milich: Anthropogenic Desertification vs 'Natural' Climate Trends |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date=1997-08-10 |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> * [[1738]]: [[Pope Clement XII]] issues the [[Eminenti Apostolatus Specula]] prohibiting Catholics from becoming [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]]. * [[1739]]: [[Nadir Shah]] defeated the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]] and sacked [[Delhi]]. * [[1739]]: Great Britain and Spain fight the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]] in the Caribbean. ===[[1740s]]=== [[File:Frederick II of Prussia Coloured drawing.png|upright|thumb|[[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick II the Great]], King of Prussia.]] [[File:The Battle of Culloden.jpg|thumb|The extinction of the [[Scottish clan]] system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the [[Battle of Culloden]] in 1746.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unique-cottages.co.uk/unspoilt/20/clans |title=A guide to Scottish clans |publisher=Unique-cottages.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref>]] * [[1740]]: [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] comes to power in [[Prussia]]. * [[1740]]: British attempt to capture [[St. Augustine, Florida]] but lose to the Spanish during the [[Siege of St. Augustine]]. * [[1740]]-[[1741]]: [[Great Irish Famine (1740-1741)|Famine in Ireland]] killed ten per cent of the population. * [[1740]]-[[1748]]: [[War of the Austrian Succession]] * [[1741]]: [[Russia]]ns began settling the [[Aleutian Islands]]. * [[1741]]: [[Pope Benedict XIV]] issues ''Immensa Pastorum principis'' against slavery. * [[1744]]: The [[First Saudi State]] is founded by [[Mohammed Ibn Saud]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |title=Saudi Arabia – The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam |publisher=Countrystudies.us |date= |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> * [[1744]]: French attempt to restart the [[Jacobite Rising#1744 French invasion attempt|Jacobite rebellion]] fails * [[1744]]-[[1748]]: The [[Carnatic Wars|First Carnatic War]] fought between the British, the French, the [[Marathas]], and [[Mysore]] in [[India]]. * [[1745]]: Second [[Jacobite rising#The Rebellion/Rising of 1745 ('The Forty-Five')|Jacobite Rebellion]] began by [[Charles Edward Stuart]] in [[Scotland]]. * [[1747]]: [[Ahmed Shah Durrani]] founded the [[Durrani Empire]] in modern day [[Afghanistan]]. * [[1748]]: [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle]] ends the War of the Austrian Succession and First Carnatic War. * [[1748]]-[[1754]]: The [[Carnatic Wars|Second Carnatic War]] fought between the [[Great Britain|British]], the [[France|French]], the [[Marathas]], and [[Mysore]] in [[India]] ===[[1750s]]=== [[File:Benjamin West 005.jpg|thumb|[[The Death of General Wolfe]]]] * [[1750]]: Peak of the [[Little Ice Age]] * [[1754]]: Treaty of Pondicherry ends Second Carnatic War and recognizes [[Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah]] as [[Nawab of the Carnatic]]. * [[1754]]–[[1763]], The [[French and Indian War]], Fought in the U.S. and Canada mostly between the French and French allies and the English and English allies. The North American chapter of the [[Seven Years' War]]. * [[1755]]: The [[1755 Lisbon earthquake|Lisbon earthquake]] * [[1755]]-[[1763]]: The [[Great Upheaval]] * [[1756]]-[[1763]]: [[Seven Years' War]] fought among European powers in various theaters around the world. * [[1756]]-[[1763]]: The [[Carnatic Wars|Third Carnatic War]] fought between the [[Great Britain|British]], the [[France|French]], the [[Marathas]], and [[Mysore]] in [[India]]. * [[1757]]: [[Battle of Plassey]] signaled the beginning of formal [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] rule in [[India]] after years of commercial activity under the auspices of the [[Honourable East India Company|East India Company]]. * [[1758]]: British colonel [[James Wolfe]] issues the [[Wolfe's Manifesto]] * [[1759]]: French commander [[Louis-Joseph de Montcalm]] and British commander [[James Wolfe]] die during the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]]. ===[[1760s]]=== [[File:George III in Coronation Robes.jpg|upright|thumb|[[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]], King of Great Britain.]] * [[1760]]: [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] became King of Britain. * [[1760]]: [[Zand dynasty]] founded in Iran * [[1761]]: Maratha Empire defeated at [[Battle of Panipat (1761)|Battle of Panipat]] * [[1762]]-[[1796]]: Reign of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]] of [[Russia]]. * [[1763]]: [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] ends Seven Years' War and Third Carnatic War * [[1763]]: [[Kingdom of Mysore]] conquers the [[Keladi Nayaka|Kingdom of Keladi]] * [[1765]]: [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]] introduced into the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] by the UK Parliament. * [[1766]]-[[1799]]: [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] * [[1767]]: [[Konbaung Dynasty|Burmese]] conquered the [[Ayutthaya kingdom]]. * [[1768]]: [[Gurkha]]s conquered [[Nepal]]. * [[1768]]-[[1774]]: [[Russo-Turkish War, 1768-1774|Russo-Turkish War]] * [[1769]]: [[Spain|Spanish]] [[missionary|missionaries]] established the first of 21 [[Spanish Missions of California|missions]] in [[California]]. * [[1769]]-[[1770]]: [[James Cook]] explores and maps New Zealand and Australia * [[1769]]-[[1773]]: The [[Bengal famine of 1770]] killed one third of the [[Bengal]] population. ===[[1770s]]=== [[File:Rejtan Upadek Polski Matejko.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tadeusz Rejtan|Rejtan]] and the [[Partitions of Poland]]]] * [[1770]]: [[James Cook]] claims the East Coast of Australia ([[New South Wales]]) for Great Britain. * [[1770]]-[[1771]]: [[Famines in Czech lands|Famine in Czech lands]] killed hundreds of thousands. * [[1771]]: The [[Plague Riot]] in [[Moscow]]. * [[1771]]: [[Richard Arkwright]] and his partners build the world's first water-powered mill at Cromford. * [[1772]]: [[Gustav III of Sweden]] stages a coup d'état and takes big political power, becoming almost an absolute monarch. * [[1772]]: [[Partitions of Poland]] marks the end of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] * [[1772]]-[[1779]]: Maratha Empire fights England and [[Raghunathrao]]'s forces during the [[First Anglo-Maratha War]] * [[1772]]-[[1795]]: The [[Partitions of Poland]] ended the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and erased Poland from the map for 123 years. * [[1773]]-[[1775]]: The [[Pugachev's Rebellion]] was the largest peasant revolt in [[Russia]]'s history. * [[1773]]: East India Company starts operations in [[Bengal]] to smuggle [[Opium Wars|Opium into China]]. * [[1775]] [[John Harrison|John Harrison H4]] and [[Larcum Kendall|Larcum Kendall K1]] [[Marine chronometer]]s are used to measure [[longitude]] by [[James Cook]] on his [[James Cook#Second voyage (1772-75)|Second voyage (1772-1775)]] * [[1775]]-[[1782]]: [[First Anglo-Maratha War]] * [[1775]]-[[1783]]: [[American Revolutionary War]] * [[1776]]: [[Illuminati]] founded by Adam Weishaupt * [[1776]]: [[United States Declaration of Independence]] ratified by the [[Continental Congress]]. * [[1778]]: [[James Cook]] becomes first European on the [[Hawaiian Islands]]. * [[1779]]-[[1879]]: [[Xhosa Wars]] between British and [[Boer]] settlers and the [[Xhosa]]s in [[South African Republic]] ===[[1780s]]=== [[File:Portrait of George Washington.jpeg|thumb|[[George Washington]]]] * [[1781]]: [[Spaniards|Spanish]] settlers founded [[Los Angeles]]. * [[1781]]-[[1785]]: [[Serfdom]] abolished in the [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austrian monarchy]] (first step; second step in [[1848]]) * [[1783]]: [[List of famines|Famine]] in [[Iceland]] caused by the eruption of the [[Laki (volcano)|Laki]] volcano. * [[1783]]: [[Russian Empire]] annexed the [[Crimean Khanate]]. * [[1783]] The treaty of Paris formally ends the American War of Independence. * [[1785]]-[[1791]]: Imam [[Sheikh Mansur]], a [[Chechen people|Chechen]] warrior and Muslim mystic, led a coalition of Muslim [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian tribes]] from throughout the [[Caucasus]] in a [[Jihad|holy war]] against the Russian invaders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/bin/site/wrappers/spirituality-sufism_caucasus.html |title=Sufism in the Caucasus |publisher=Islamicsupremecouncil.org |date= |accessdate=2009-04-25}}</ref> * [[1785]]-[[1795]]: [[Northwest Indian War]] between the [[United States]] and [[Indigenous peoples in the United States|Native Americans]] * [[1787]]: Freed slaves from [[London]] founded [[Freetown]] in present-day [[Sierra Leone]]. * [[1787]]: [[Kansei Reforms]] instituted in Japan by [[Matsudaira Sadanobu]]. * [[1787]]-[[1792]]: [[Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792)|Russo-Turkish War]] * [[1788]]: First European settlement established in [[Australia]] at [[Sydney]]. * [[1789]]: [[George Washington]] elected [[President of the United States]]. Served until [[1797]]. * [[1789]]: Great Britain and Spain dispute the [[Nootka Sound]] during the [[Nootka Crisis]]. * [[1789]]-[[1799]]: The [[French Revolution]] [[File:1801 Antoine-Jean Gros - Bonaparte on the Bridge at Arcole.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Napoleon]] at the [[Battle of the Bridge of Arcole|Bridge of the Arcole]]]] ===[[1790s]]=== [[File:new ross.gif|thumb|The [[Battle of New Ross (1798)|Battle of New Ross]] took place in [[Ireland]], during the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]].]] [[File:kamehamehaportrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kamehameha I]], [[Kingdom of Hawaii|King of the Hawaiian Islands]]]] * [[1790]]: Establishment of the [[Polish-Prussian Pact]] * [[1791]] The Constitutional Act (Or Canada Act) creates the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada in British North America. * [[1791]]-[[1795]]: [[George Vancouver]] explores the world during the [[Vancouver Expedition]]. * [[1791]]-[[1804]]: The [[Haitian Revolution]] * [[1792]]-[[1815]]: The [[Great French War]] started as the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] which lead into the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. * [[1792]]: [[New York Stock Exchange|New York Stock & Exchange Board]] founded. * [[1792]]: King [[Gustav III of Sweden]] was assassinated by a conspiracy of noblemen. * [[1793]]: [[Upper Canada]] [[Act Against Slavery|bans slavery]]. * [[1793]]: The largest [[Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1793|yellow fever epidemic]] in American history killed as many as 5,000 people in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]—roughly 10% of the population.<ref>{{cite web | title=Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793 | work=EyeWitness to History|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm|accessdate=2007-06-22}}</ref> * [[1793]]-[[1796]]: [[Revolt in the Vendée]] against the French Republic at the time of the [[French Revolution|Revolution]]. * [[1794]]: [[Kościuszko Uprising|Polish revolt]] * [[1794]]: [[Jay's Treaty]] concluded between [[Great Britain]] and the [[United States]], by which the [[Western Posts]] in the [[Great Lakes]] are returned to the U.S., and commerce between the two countries is regulated. * [[1794]]: [[Qajar dynasty]] founded in Iran after replacing the Zand dynasty. * [[1795]]: [[Pinckney's Treaty]] between the [[United States]] and [[Spain]] granted the [[Mississippi Territory]] to the US. * [[1795]]: The [[Marseillaise]] officially adopted as the [[France|French]] [[national anthem]]. * [[1795]]: [[Kamehameha I]] of the Island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]] defeats the [[Oahu]]ans at the [[Battle of Nu'uanu]]. * [[1796]]: [[Edward Jenner]] administers the first [[smallpox vaccination]]. [[Smallpox]] killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century (including five reigning [[monarch]]s).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Riedel S |title=Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination |url= http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1200696|journal=Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2005 |pmid=16200144 |doi=}}</ref> * [[1796]]: [[Battle of Montenotte]]. Engagement in the War of the [[First Coalition]]. [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s first victory as an army commander. * [[1796]]: British ejected Dutch from [[Ceylon]]. * [[1796]]: [[Mungo Park (explorer)|Mungo Park]], backed by the [[African Association]], is the first European to set eyes on the [[Niger River]] in Africa. * [[1796]]-[[1804]]: The [[White Lotus Rebellion]] against the [[Qing Dynasty|Manchu Dynasty]] in China. * [[1797]]: [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s invasion and partition of the [[Republic of Venice]] ended over 1,000 years of independence for the Serene Republic. * [[1798]]: The [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|Irish Rebellion]] failed to overthrow British rule in [[Ireland]]. * [[1798]]-[[1800]]: [[Quasi-War]] between the [[United States]] and [[France]]. * [[1799]]: [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] staged a [[coup d'état]] and became [[dictator]] of [[France]]. * [[1799]]: [[Dutch East India Company]] is dissolved. * [[1799]]: The assassination of the 14th [[Tu'i Kanokupolu]], Tukuʻaho, plunges [[Tonga]] into half a century of civil war. ==Significant people== ===World leaders, politicians, military=== {{see also|Founding Fathers of the United States}} [[File:Levni 002 detail.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ahmed III]]]] [[File:Anniex.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Queen Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]]] [[File:MA178788.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Marie Antoinette]], [[Queen of France]] and [[Archduchess of Austria]]]] [[File:Benjamin Franklin by Jean-Baptiste Greuze.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Benjamin Franklin]]]] [[File:Louis16-1775.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]]] [[File:Peter der-Grosse 1838.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Peter the Great]]]] [[File:J S Copley - Paul Revere.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Paul Revere]]]] [[File:Korea-Yeongjo-King of Joseon-c1.jpg‎|thumb|upright|[[Yeongjo]], King of the Joseon Dynasty in Korea.]] * [[John Adams]], American statesman * [[Samuel Adams]], American statesman * [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]], Afghan King * [[Ahmed III]], Sultan of the Ottoman Empire * [[Hyder Ali]], Ruler of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] * [[Ethan Allen]], American Revolutionary Army * [[Anne of Great Britain|Anne]], Queen of Great Britain * [[Marie Antoinette]], Austrian-born Queen of France * [[Augustus III of Poland|Augustus III]], Elector of Saxony, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Lithuania * [[Aurangzeb]], Mughal Emperor * [[Boromakot]], King of [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthaya]] * [[Boromaracha V]], King of [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthaya]] * [[William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire|William Cavendish]], Anglo-Irish politician * [[John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville|John Carteret]], Anglo-Irish politician * [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]], Tsaritsa of Russia * [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]], King of Spain, Naples, and Sicily * [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, King of Bohemia and Hungary * [[Charles XII of Sweden|Charles XII]], King of Sweden, the Goths and the Wends; * [[Charlotte Corday]], French revolutionary * [[Georges Danton]], French revolutionary leader * [[Farrukhsiyar]], Emperor of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] * [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand I]], King of Naples, Sicily, and the [[Two Sicilies]] * [[Benjamin Franklin]], American leader, scientist and statesman * [[Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra|Juan Franscisco]], Spanish naval officer and explorer * [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Frederick]], King of Sweden, the Goths and the Wends * [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]], King of Prussia * [[George I of Great Britain|George I]], King of Great Britain and Ireland * [[George II of Great Britain|George II]], King of Great Britain and Ireland * [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]], King of Great Britain and Ireland * [[Robert Gray (sea captain)|Robert Gray]], American revolutionary, merchant, and explorer * [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]], King of Sweden, the Goths and the Wends * [[Gyeongjong of Joseon|Gyeongjong]], King of Joseon Dynasty * [[Abdul Hamid I]], Sultan of Ottoman Empire * [[Alexander Hamilton]], American statesman * [[Patrick Henry]], American statesman * [[Emperor Higashiyama]], Emperor of Japan * [[John Jay]], American statesman * [[Thomas Jefferson]], American statesman * [[Jeongjo of Joseon|Jeongjo]], King of Joseon Dynasty * [[John Paul Jones]], American naval commander * [[Joseph I of Portugal|Joseph I]], King of Portugal * [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], Austrian Emperor * [[Kangxi Emperor]], Chinese Emperor * [[Karim Khan]], [[Shah]] of Iran and King of Persia * [[Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette|Marquis de Lafayette]], Continental Army officer * [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], King of France * [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], King of France * [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]], King of France * [[Louis XVII of France|Louis XVII]], imprisoned King of France, never ruled * [[James Madison]], American statesman * [[Madhavrao I]], Peshwa/Prime Minister of Maratha Empire * [[Madhavrao I Scindia]], Marathan leader * [[Mahmud I]], Sultan of Ottoman Empire * [[Alessandro Malaspina]], Spanish explorer * [[George Mason]], American statesman * [[Michikinikwa]], Miami chief and warrior * [[José Moñino y Redondo, Count of Floridablanca|José Moñino y Redondo]], Spanish statesman * [[Louis-Joseph de Montcalm]], French officer * [[Mustafa III]], Sultan of Ottoman Empire * [[Nadir Shah]], King of Persia * [[Emperor Nakamikado|Nakamikado]], Emperor of Japan * [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Horatio Nelson]], British admiral * [[Nanasaheb Peshwa|Nanasaheb]], Peshwa/Prime Minister of Maratha Empire * [[Shivappa Nayaka]], King of Keladi Nayaka * [[Osman III]], Sultan of Ottaman Empire * [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]] (''Peter the Great''), Tsar of Russian * [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], King of Spain * [[Chief Pontiac|Pontiac]], Ottawa chief and warrior * [[Qianlong Emperor|Qianlong]], Emperor of China * [[Rajaram II of Satara]], Monarch of the [[Maratha Empire|Maratha Confederacy]] * [[Francis II Rákóczi]], Prince of Hungary and Transylvania, revolutionary leader * [[Tadeusz Rejtan]], Polish politician * [[Paul Revere]], American revolutionary leader and silversmith * [[Maximilien Robespierre]], French revolutionary leader * [[Betsy Ross]], American flag maker * [[Shah Rukh of Persia]], King of Persia. * [[John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford|John Russell]], Anglo-Irish politician * [[Lionel Sackville, 1st Duke of Dorset|Lionel Sackville]], Anglo-Irish politician * [[Sebastião de Melo, Marquis of Pombal|Sebastião de Melo]], Prime Minister of Portugal * [[Chattrapati Shahu]], Emperor of [[Maratha Empire]] * [[Selim III]], Sultan of Ottoman Empire * [[Charles Edward Stuart]], English [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] exile * [[Sukjong of Joseon|Sukjong]], King of Joseon Dynasty * [[Alexander Suvorov]], Russian military leader * [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], Austrian Empress * [[Tokugawa Ieharu]], Japanese Shogun * [[Tokugawa Ienobu]], Japanese Shogun * [[Tokugawa Ieshige]], Japanese Shogun * [[Tokugawa Ietsugu]], Japanese Shogun * [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]], Japanese Shogun * [[Tokugawa Yoshimune]], Japanese Shogun * [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]], Haitian revolutionary leader * [[Túpac Amaru II]], Peruvian revolutionary * [[George Vancouver]], British Captain and explorer * [[Robert Walpole]], Prime Minister of Great Britain * [[George Washington]], American general and first President of the United States * [[James Wolfe]], British officer * [[Yeongjo]], King of Joseon Dynasty ===Show business, theatre, entertainers=== {{see also|Theatre Royal, Drury Lane|Haymarket Theatre|Sichuan opera}} [[File:David Garrick by Thomas Gainsborough.jpg|thumb|upright|[[David Garrick]]]] * [[Barton Booth]], actor * [[Colley Cibber]], actor, poet, playwright * [[Thomas Doggett]], actor * [[David Garrick]], actor * [[John Gay]], English dramatist and poet * [[Charles Johnson (writer)|Charles Johnson]], English playwright * [[Charles Macklin]], actor * [[Chikamatsu Monzaemon]], Japanese dramatist, playwright * [[John O'Keeffe (Irish writer)|John O'Keeffee]], Irish playwright * [[Anne Oldfield]], English actress * [[Hannah Pritchard]], English actress * [[Hester Santlow]], English actress, ballerina, dancer * [[Kong Shangren]], Chinese dramatist, poet * [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]], Irish playwright * [[John Small (Hambledon cricketer)|John Small]], English cricketer * [[Edward "Lumpy" Stevens]], English cricketer * [[Robert Wilks]], English actor * [[Wang Yun (Qing Dynasty)|Wang Yun]], Chinese playwright, poet ===Musicians, composers=== {{main|List of Classical era composers|List of Baroque composers}} [[File:Young Bach2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]]] [[File:Mozart (unfinished) by Lange 1782.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]]] * [[Tomaso Albinoni]], Italian composer * [[Samuel Arnold (composer)|Samuel Arnold]], English composer and musician * [[Nidhu Babu]], Indian and Bengali musician and composer * [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], German composer * [[Charles Burney]], English musician and music historian * [[François Couperin]], French composer * [[William Cowper]], English hymnist and poet * [[Dede Efendi]], Turkish/Ottoman composer * [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], German composer * [[Francesco Geminiani]], Italian violinist, composer, and music theorist. * [[George Frideric Handel]], German-English composer * [[Joseph Haydn]], Austrian composer * [[Hampartsoum Limondjian]], Armenian/Ottoman composer * [[Kali Mirza]], Bengali composer * [[Leopold Mozart]], Austrian composer * [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], Austrian composer * [[Johann Pachelbel]], German composer, teacher * [[François-André Danican Philidor]], French composer and chess master * [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]], French composer * [[Bharatchandra Ray]], Bengali composer, musician, and poet * [[Sadarang]], Hindustani composer * [[Domenico Scarlatti]], Italian composer. * [[Antonio Stradivari]], Italian violin maker * [[Antonio Vivaldi]], Italian composer * [[Isaac Watts]], English hymnist ===Visual artists, painters, sculptors, printmakers=== {{main|History of painting|Rococo|Neoclassicism}} [[File:William Blake by Thomas Phillips.jpg|thumb|upright|[[William Blake]]]] [[File:Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]]]] * [[Michel Benoist]], French painter, architect, missionary in China * [[William Blake]], English artist and poet * [[Edmé Bouchardon]], French sculptor * [[François Boucher]], French painter * [[Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit)|Giuseppe Castiglione]], Italian painter, architect, missionary in China * [[Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]], French painter * [[John Singleton Copley]], American painter * [[Jacques-Louis David]], French painter * [[Étienne Maurice Falconet]], French sculptor * [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], French painter * [[Thomas Gainsborough]], English painter * [[Francisco de Goya]], Spanish painter * [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], French painter * [[Suzuki Harunobu]], Japanese woodblock printer * [[William Hogarth]], English painter and engraver * [[Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne]], French sculptor, student of his father * [[Jean-Louis Lemoyne]], French sculptor * [[Robert Le Lorrain]], French sculptor * [[Yuan Mei]], Chinese painter, poet, essayist * [[Antoine Ignace Melling]], French-German painter, architect * [[Gai Qi]], Chinese painter, poet * [[Bartolomeo Rastrelli]], Italian-born Russian architect * [[Joshua Reynolds]], English painter * [[Gilbert Stuart]], American painter * [[Nishikawa Sukenobu]], Japanese printmaker, teacher * [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], Venetian painter * [[Jiang Tingxi]], Chinese artist and scholar * [[Utamaro|Kitagawa Utamaro]], Japanese printmaker and painter * [[Antoine Watteau]], French painter ===Writers, poets=== [[File:Samuel Johnson by Joshua Reynolds 2.png|thumb|upright|[[Samuel Johnson]]]] [[File:Alexander Pope by Michael Dahl.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alexander Pope]]]] [[File:François de Voltaire porträtterad av Nicolas de Largillière.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Voltaire]]]] [[File:Marywollstonecraft.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mary Wollstonecraft]]]] * [[Jane Austen]], English writer * [[Anna Laetitia Barbauld]], English Poet, essayist, and children's author * [[Pierre Beaumarchais]], French writer * [[Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux]], French poet and literary critic * [[James Boswell]], Scottish biographer * [[Frances Burney]], English novelist * [[Robert Burns]], Scottish poet * [[Giacomo Casanova]], Venetian adventurer, writer and womanizer * [[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]], French writer * [[Daniel Defoe]], English novelist and journalist * [[Liang Desheng]], Chinese poet and writer * [[Maria Edgeworth]], Anglo-Irish novelist * [[Henry Fielding]], English novelist * [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], German writer * [[Oliver Goldsmith]], Anglo-Irish writer, poet, children's writer, and playwright * [[Thomas Gray]], English poet, scholar, and educator * [[Eliza Haywood]], English writer * [[Wu Jingzi]], Chinese writer * [[Samuel Johnson]], British writer, lexicographer, poet, and literary critic * [[John Keats]], British poet/writer * [[Ferenc Kazinczy]], Hungarian writer * [[Charlotte Lennox]], English novelist and poet * [[Matthew Lewis (writer)|Matthew Lewis]], English novelist and playwright * [[Sadhak Kamalakanta]], Indian poet * [[Henry Mackenzie]], Scottish novelist * [[Jean-Paul Marat]], French journalist * [[Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos]], Spanish writer * [[Yuan Mei]], Chinese poet, scholar and artist * [[Honoré Mirabeau]], French writer and politician * [[John Newbery]], English children's literature publisher * [[Alexander Pope]], English poet * [[Ann Radcliffe]], English novelist * [[Samuel Richardson]], English novelist * [[Li Ruzhen]], Chinese novelist * [[Marquis de Sade]], French writer and philosopher * [[Ramprasad Sen]], Bengali poet and singer * [[Friedrich Schiller]], German writer * [[Walter Scott]], Scottish novelest and poet * [[Christopher Smart]], English poet and actor * [[Robert Southey]], English poet and biographer * [[Hester Thrale]], English memoirist * [[Charlotte Turner Smith]], English writer * [[Pu Songling]], Chinese short story writer * [[Laurence Sterne]], Anglo-Irish writer * [[Jonathan Swift]], Anglo-Irish satirist and [[Church of Ireland]] [[Dean (religion)|Dean]] * [[Ueda Akinari]], Japanese writer * [[Voltaire]], French writer and philosopher * [[Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford|Horace Walpole]], English writer and politician * [[Mary Wollstonecraft]], British writer and feminist * [[Cao Xueqin]], Chinese writer ===Philosophers, theologians=== [[File:Louis-Michel van Loo 001.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Denis Diderot]]]] [[File:Emanuel Swedenborg full portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Emanuel Swedenborg]]]] * [[Arai Hakuseki]], Japanese scholar, writer and politician * [[Jeremy Bentham]], English philosopher and reformer * [[George Berkeley]], Irish empiricist philosopher * [[Edmund Burke]], British statesman and philosopher * [[Frederick Cornwallis]], Archbishop of Canterbury * [[Erasmus Darwin]], English philosopher, poet and scientist * [[Denis Diderot]], French writer and philosopher * [[William Godwin]], English philosopher and novelist * [[Aaron Halle-Wolfssohn]], German writer, Jewish theologian, translator, and professor * [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], German philosopher, writer, and critic * [[Thomas Herring]], Archbishop of Canterbury * [[David Hume]], Scottish philosopher * [[Matthew Hutton (Archbishop of Canterbury)|Matthew Hutton]], Archbishop of Canterbury * [[Immanuel Kant]], German philosopher * [[Kamo no Mabuchi]], Japanese philosopher * [[William Law]], English theologian * [[Alphonsus Liguori]], Italian bishop, founder of Redemptorists, Saint * [[Moses Mendelssohn]], German philosopher * [[Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu|Charles de Secondat (Montesquieu)]], French thinker * [[John Moore (Archbishop)|John Moore]], Archbishop of Canterbury * [[Motoori Norinaga]], Japanese philosopher and scholar * [[Thomas Paine]], English philosopher * [[Elihu Palmer]], American deist * [[Thomas Percy]], English bishop and editor * [[Joseph Perl]], German writer, Jewish theologian, and educator * [[John Potter (Archbishop)|John Potter]], Archbishop of Canterbury * [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], French writer and philosopher * [[Thomas Secker]], Archbishop of Canterbury * [[Sugita Genpaku]], Japanese scholar and translator * [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], Swedish scientist, thinker and mystic * [[Thomas Tenison]], Archbishop of Canterbury * [[Christian Thomasius]], German philosopher and jurist * [[Baal Shem Tov]], Ukrainian rabbi * [[Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab]], Arab Islamic theologian and founder of Wahhabism * [[William Wake]], Archbishop of Canterbury * [[John Wesley]], English theologian, founder of Methodism * [[Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf]], German religious writer and bishop ===Scientists, researchers=== [[File:Edward Jenner2.jpg|thumb|[[Edward Jenner]]]] [[File:James Watt.jpg|upright|thumb|[[James Watt (inventor)|James Watt]]]] * [[Roger Joseph Boscovich]], physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, diplomat, poet, and Jesuit * [[Maria Gaetana Agnesi]], Italian mathematician<ref name="Schiebinger">{{cite book | author=Porter, Roy (Editor)| title=The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 4: The Eighteenth Century (The Cambridge History of Science) |publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=0521572436 | oclc=123123201 }}, "The Philosopher's Beard: Women and Gender in Science" by Londra Schiebinger, pages 184-210</ref> * [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]], French mathematician, physicist and encyclopedist * [[Joseph Banks]], English botanist * [[Laura Bassi]], Italian scientist, the first European female college teacher<ref name="Schiebinger" /> * [[Daniel Bernoulli]], Swiss mathematician and physicist * [[Anders Celsius]], Swedish astronomer * [[Alexis Clairault]], French mathematician * [[James Cook]], English navigator, explorer and cartographer * [[Eugenio Espejo]], Ecuadorian scientist * [[Leonhard Euler]], Swiss mathematician * [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]], German physicist and engineer * [[George Fordyce]], Scottish physician and chemist * [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], German mathematician, physicist and astronomer * [[Edward Gibbon]], English historian * [[Edward Jenner]], English inventor of vaccination * [[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]], English philologist * [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]], Italian-French mathematician and physicist * [[Pierre Simon Laplace]], French physicist and mathematician * [[Antoine Lavoisier]], French chemist * [[John Law (economist)|John Law]], Scottish economist * [[Pan Lei]], Chinese scholar and mathematician * [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]], French mathematician * [[Carolus Linnaeus]] (''Carl von Linné''), Swedish biologist * [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], Russian scientist * [[Edmond Malone]], Irish literary scholar * [[Thomas Malthus]], English economist * [[Joseph Priestley]], dissenting minister and chemist * [[John Smeaton]], civil engineer and physicist * [[Adam Smith]], Scottish economist and philosopher * [[Antonio de Ulloa]], Spanish scientist and explorer * [[James Watt (inventor)|James Watt]], Scottish scientist and inventor * [[John Whitehurst]], English geologist * [[Dai Zhen]], Chinese mathematician, geographer, phonologist and philosopher == Inventions, discoveries, introductions == {{main|Timeline of historic inventions#18th century|Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries#18th_century}} [[File:Spinning jenny.jpg|thumb|The [[Spinning Jenny]]]] [[File:Red building Putuo Zongcheng Temple.JPG|thumb|The Chinese [[Putuo Zongcheng Temple]] of [[Chengde]], completed in 1771, during the reign of the [[Qianlong Emperor]].]] * [[1709]]: The first [[piano]] was built by [[Bartolomeo Cristofori]] * [[1711]]: The [[Tuning fork]] invented by John Shore * [[1712]]: The [[Steam Engine]] invented by [[Thomas Newcomen]] * [[1714]]: The [[Mercury thermometer]] by [[Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit]] * [[1717]]: The [[diving bell]] was successfully tested by [[Edmond Halley]], sustainable to a depth of 55 ft * c. [[1730]]: The [[octant]] navigational tool was developed by [[John Hadley]] in England, and [[Thomas Godfrey (inventor)|Thomas Godfrey]] in [[North America|America]] * [[1733]]: [[Flying shuttle]] invented by [[John Kay (flying shuttle)|John Kay]] * [[1736]]: Europeans discovered [[rubber]] – the discovery was made by [[Charles-Marie de la Condamine]] while on expedition in [[South America]]. It was named in [[1770]] by [[Joseph Priestly]] * c. [[1740]]: Modern [[steel]] was developed by [[Benjamin Huntsman]] * [[1741]]: [[Vitus Bering]] discovered [[Alaska]] * [[1745]]: The [[Leyden jar]] invented by [[Ewald von Kleist]] was the first electrical [[capacitor]] * [[1752]]: The [[Lightning rod]] invented by [[Benjamin Franklin]] * [[1755]]: The tallest ''wooden'' [[Bodhisattva]] statue in the world is erected at [[Puning Temple]], [[Chengde]], China. * [[1764]]: The [[Spinning Jenny]] created by [[James Hargreaves]] brought on the [[Industrial Revolution]] * [[1765]]: [[James Watt (inventor)|James Watt]] enhances Newcomen's steam engine, allowing new [[steel]] technologies * [[1761]]: The problem of [[Longitude]] was finally resolved by the fourth [[marine chronometer|chronometer]] of [[John Harrison]] * [[1768]]–[[1779]]: [[James Cook]] mapped the boundaries of the [[Pacific Ocean]] and discovered many [[Pacific Islands]] * [[1771]]: The enormous [[Putuo Zongcheng Temple]] complex of [[Chengde]], China is completed * [[1773]]–[[1782]]: The [[Qing Dynasty]] huge literary compilation [[Siku Quanshu]] * [[1774]]: [[Joseph Priestley]] discovers "dephlogisticated air" Oxygen * [[1775]]: [[Joseph Priestley]] first synthesis of "phlogisticated nitrous air" Nitrous Oxide "laughing gas" * [[1776]]: The [[Steamboat]] invented by [[Claude de Jouffroy]] * [[1777]]: The [[Circular saw]] invented by [[Samuel Miller (saw)|Samuel Miller]] * [[1779]]: [[Photosynthesis]] was first discovered by [[Jan Ingenhousz]] * [[1784]]: The [[Bifocals]] invented by [[Benjamin Franklin]] * [[1784]]: The [[Oil lamp]] invented by [[Aimé Argand]]<ref>[http://corporate.britannica.com/press/inventions.html Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Inventions], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> * [[1785]]: The [[Power loom]] invented by [[Edmund Cartwright]] * [[1785]]: The [[Production line|Automatic flour mill]] invented by [[Oliver Evans]] * [[1786]]: The [[Threshing machine]] invented by [[Andrew Meikle]] * [[1789]]: [[Antoine Lavoisier]] discovers the law of conservation of mass, the basis for chemistry, and begins modern chemistry * [[1798]]: [[Edward Jenner]] publishes a treatise about [[smallpox]] [[vaccination]] * [[1798]]: The [[Lithography|Lithographic printing process]] invented by [[Alois Senefelder]]<ref>Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 ISBN 0-471-291-98-6</ref> * [[1799]]: [[Rosetta stone]] discovered by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s troops ==Literary achievements== [[File:Jean-Jacques Rousseau (painted portrait).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]]] * [[1744]]: ''[[A Little Pretty Pocket-Book]]'' becomes one of the first [[Children's literature#History|books marketed for children]] * [[1748]]: ''[[Clarissa]]'' by [[Samuel Richardson]] * [[1749]]: ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling]]'' by [[Henry Fielding]] * [[1751]]–[[1785]]: The French [[Encyclopédie]] * [[1755]]: ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]] * [[1759]]: ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'' by [[Adam Smith]] * [[1762]]: ''[[Emile: or, On Education]]'' by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] * [[1762]]: ''[[Social Contract (Rousseau)|The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right]]'' by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] * [[1776]]: ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', foundation of the modern theory of economy, was published by [[Adam Smith]] * [[1776]]-[[1789]]: ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' was published by [[Edward Gibbon]] * [[1779]]: ''[[Amazing Grace]]'' published by [[John Newton]] * [[1779]]-[[1782]]: ''[[Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets]]'' by [[Samuel Johnson]] * [[1787]]-[[1788]]: ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' by [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Jay]], and [[James Madison]] * [[1791]]: ''[[Rights of Man]]'' by [[Thomas Paine]] * [[1798]]: ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'' published by [[Thomas Malthus]] == References == {{Reflist|2}} ==Decades and years== {{DecadesAndYears}} {{Centuries}} [[Category:2nd millennium]] [[Category:18th century| ]] [[Category:Centuries]] [[mhr:XVIII курым]] [[af:18de eeu]] [[als:18. Jahrhundert]] [[ar:قرن 18]] [[an:Sieglo XVIII]] [[ast:Sieglu XVIII]] [[az:XVIII əsr]] [[zh-min-nan:18 sè-kí]] [[be:18 стагоддзе]] [[be-x-old:18 стагодзьдзе]] [[bs:18. vijek]] [[br:XVIIIvet kantved]] [[bg:18 век]] [[ca:Segle XVIII]] [[cv:XVIII ĕмĕр]] [[cs:18. století]] [[cy:18fed ganrif]] [[da:18. århundrede]] [[de:18. Jahrhundert]] [[et:18. sajand]] [[el:18ος αιώνας]] [[es:Siglo XVIII]] [[eo:18-a jarcento]] [[eu:XVIII. mendea]] [[fa:سده ۱۸ (میلادی)]] [[fo:18. øld]] [[fr:XVIIIe siècle]] [[fy:18e ieu]] [[ga:18ú haois]] [[gv:18oo eash]] [[gd:18mh Linn]] [[gl:Século XVIII]] [[gan:18世紀]] [[ko:18세기]] [[hy:18-րդ դար]] [[hr:18. stoljeće]] [[io:18ma yar-cento]] [[id:Abad ke-18]] [[os:XVIII æнус]] [[is:18. öldin]] [[it:XVIII secolo]] [[he:המאה ה-18]] [[jv:Abad kaping-18]] [[ka:XVIII საუკუნე]] [[kk:18 ғ.]] [[kw:18ves kansbledhen]] [[sw:Karne ya 18]] [[ku:Sedsala 18'an]] [[la:Saeculum 18]] [[lv:18. gadsimts]] [[lb:18. Joerhonnert]] [[lt:XVIII amžius]] [[lij:XVIII secolo]] [[li:Achtiende iew]] [[hu:18. század]] [[mk:18 век]] [[mi:Rautau 18]] [[mr:इ.स.चे १८ वे शतक]] [[ms:Abad ke-18]] [[nl:18e eeuw]] [[nds-nl:18e eeuw]] [[ja:18世紀]] [[nap:XVIII seculo]] [[no:18. århundre]] [[nn:1700-talet]] [[nrm:XVIIIe s.]] [[nov:18esmi sekle]] [[oc:Sègle XVIII]] [[uz:XVIII asr]] [[nds:18. Johrhunnert]] [[pl:XVIII wiek]] [[pt:Século XVIII]] [[ksh:18. Joohunndot]] [[ro:Secolul al XVIII-lea]] [[ru:XVIII век]] [[sah:XVIII үйэ]] [[stq:18. Jierhunnert]] [[sq:Shekulli XVIII]] [[scn:Sèculu XVIII]] [[simple:18th century]] [[sk:18. storočie]] [[sl:18. stoletje]] [[sr:18. век]] [[sh:18. vijek]] [[su:Abad ka-18]] [[fi:1700-luku]] [[sv:1700-talet]] [[ta:18ம் நூற்றாண்டு]] [[tt:18. yöz]] [[th:คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 18]] [[tr:18. yüzyıl]] [[tk:18-nji asyr]] [[uk:18 століття]] [[vec:XVIII secoło]] [[vi:Thế kỷ 18]] [[fiu-vro:18. aastagasada]] [[wa:18inme sieke]] [[yi:18טער י"ה]] [[zh-yue:18世紀]] [[bat-smg:XVIII omžios]] [[zh:18世纪]]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Pirate Ship 2009-07-28T19:59:00Z 2009-07-28T19:59:00 2009-07-28T19:59:00Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>'''Piracy''' is a war-like act committed by a [[non-state actor]], especially [[robbery]] or [[crime|criminal violence]] committed at [[sea]], on [[water]], or sometimes on [[shore]]. It does not normally include crimes on board a vessel among passengers or crew. The term has been used to refer to raids across land borders by non-state actors. Piracy should be distinguished from [[privateer]]ing, which was a legitimate form of war-like activity by non-state actors, authorized by their national authorities, until this form of [[commerce raiding]] was outlawed in the 19th century. == Definition == Maritime piracy, according to the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] (UNCLOS) of 1982, consists of any criminal acts of violence, detention, or depredation committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or aircraft that is directed on the high seas against another ship, aircraft, or against persons or property on board a ship or aircraft. Piracy can also be committed against a ship, aircraft, persons, or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any state, in fact piracy has been the first example of universal jurisdiction. Nevertheless today the [[international community]] is facing many problems in bringing pirates to [[justice]].<ref>{{cite news |first=M.Chiarugi |last=D.Archibugi |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/piracy-challenges-global-governance |title=Piracy challenges global governance |date=2009-04-09 |accessdate=2009-04-09 |publisher=[[Open Democracy]]}}</ref> ==History== ===Ancient origins=== [[File:Romtrireme.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Mosaic of a [[Trireme|Roman Trireme]] in [[Tunisia]].]] Pirates have been around as long as people have used the oceans as trade routes. The earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the [[Sea Peoples]] who threatened the [[Aegean civilization|Aegean]] and [[Mediterranean]] in the 13th century BC.<ref name="buccaneersoft1">[http://pirateshold.buccaneersoft.com/pirate_timeline.html The Pirates Hold - Piracy Timeline].</ref> In [[Classical Antiquity]], the [[Illyrians]] and [[Tyrrhenians]] were known as pirates, as well as [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. The island of [[Lemnos]] long resisted Greek influence and remained a haven for Thracian pirates. During their voyages the [[Phoenicia]]ns seem to have sometimes resorted to piracy, and specialized in kidnapping boys and girls to be sold as [[slave]]s.<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Parliament/2587/trade.html Phoenician Economy and Trade].</ref> By the 1st century BC, there were pirate states along the [[Anatolia]]n coast, threatening the commerce of the [[Roman Empire]]. On one voyage across the [[Aegean Sea]] in 75 BC,<ref>Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#4 4]). Plutarch (''Caesar'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1.8 1.8-2]) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#41.3 2:41.3-42] says merely that it happened when he was a young man.</ref> [[Julius Caesar]] was kidnapped by [[Cilicia]]n pirates and held prisoner in the [[Dodecanese]] islet of [[Farmakos|Pharmacusa]].<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 1-2.</ref> He maintained an attitude of superiority and good cheer throughout his captivity. When the pirates decided to demand a ransom of twenty [[Talent (weight)|talents]] of gold, Caesar is said to have insisted that he was worth at least fifty, and the pirates indeed raised the ransom to fifty talents. After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and had them put to death. The Senate finally invested [[Pompey]] with powers to deal with piracy in 67 BC (the ''[[Lex Gabinia]]''), and Pompey after three months of naval warfare managed to suppress the threat. (See [[Pompey#Campaign against the pirates]]). In the 3rd century, pirate attacks on [[Olympos]] (city in [[Anatolia]]) brought impoverishment. Among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the [[Illyrians]], populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the [[Adriatic Sea]], the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the [[Roman Republic]]. It was not until 68 BC that the Romans finally conquered Illyria and made it a province, ending their threat. As early as 258 AD, the [[Goths|Gothic]]-[[Heruli]]c fleet ravaged towns on the coasts of the [[Black Sea]] and [[Sea of Marmara]]. The [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coast suffered similar attacks a few years later. In 264, the [[Goths]] reached [[Galatia]] and [[Cappadocia]], and Gothic pirates landed on [[Cyprus]] and [[Crete]]. In the process, the Goths seized enormous booty and took thousands into captivity. In 286 AD, [[Carausius]], a Roman military commander of Gaulish origins, was appointed to command the ''[[Classis Britannica]]'', and given the responsibility of eliminating [[Frankish]] and [[Saxons|Saxon]] pirates who had been raiding the coasts of [[Armorica]] and Belgic [[Gaul]]. In the Roman province of Britannia, [[Saint Patrick]] was captured and enslaved by [[Ireland|Irish]] pirates. Early [[Polynesia]]n [[warriors]] attacked seaside and riverside villages. They used the sea for their [[hit-and-run tactics]] - a safe place to retreat to if the battle turned against them. ===Middle Ages to 19th century=== The most widely known and far reaching pirates in medieval [[Europe]] were the [[Vikings]], warriors and looters from [[Scandinavia]] who raided from about 783 to 1066, during the [[Viking Age]] in the [[Early Middle Ages]]. They raided the coasts, rivers and inland cities of all Western Europe as far as [[Seville]], attacked by the Norse in 844. Vikings even attacked coasts of North Africa and Italy. They also plundered all the coasts of the [[Baltic Sea]], ascending the rivers of Eastern Europe as far as the Black Sea and Persia. The lack of centralized powers all over [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]] favoured pirates all over the continent. Meanwhile, [[Muslim]] pirates terrorized the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Toward the end of the 9th century, Muslim pirate havens were established along the coast of southern [[France]] and northern [[Italy]].<ref>[http://www.geocities.com/athens/troy/4040/pirates.htm The Pirates of St. Tropez].</ref> In 846 Muslim raiders [[Sack of Rome (846)|sacked Rome]] and damaged the Vatican. In 911, the bishop of [[Narbonne]] was unable to return to France from Rome because the Muslims from [[Fraxinet]] controlled all the passes in the [[Alps]]. Muslim pirates operated out of the [[Balearic Islands]] in the 10th century. From 824 to 961 [[Arab]] pirates in [[Crete]] raided the entire Mediterranean. In the 14th century, raids by Muslim pirates forced the Venetian Duke of [[Crete]] to ask [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] to keep its fleet on constant guard.<ref>[http://www.cretanews.com/site/index.php?page=art&article=104&lang= Piracy on Crete], Creta News.</ref> After the [[Slavs|Slavic]] [[invasions]] of the Balkan peninsula in the 5th and 6th centuries, a [[Slavs|Slavic]] tribe settled the land of [[Pagania]] between [[Dalmatia]] and [[Zachlumia]] in the first half of the 7th century. These Slavs revived the old Illyrian piratical habits and often raided the Adriatic Sea. By 642 they invaded southern Italy and assaulted Siponte in [[Benevento]]. Their raids in the Adriatic increased rapidly, until the whole Sea was no longer safe for travel. The "[[Narentines]]", as they were called, took more liberties in their raiding quests while the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] Navy was abroad, as when it was campaigning in Sicilian waters in 827-82. As soon as the Venetian fleet would return to the Adriatic, the Narentines temporarily abandoned their habits again, even signing a Treaty in Venice and baptising their Slavic pagan leader into Christianity. In 834 or 835 they broke the treaty and again the [[Neretva pirate]]s raided Venetian traders returning from Benevento, and all of Venice's military attempts to punish the Marians in 839 and 840 utterly failed. Later, they raided the Venetians more often, together with the [[Arabs]]. In 846 the Narentines broke through to Venice itself and raided its lagoon city of Kaorle. In the middle of March of 870 they kidnapped the Roman Bishop's emissaries that were returning from the Ecclesiastical Council in Constantinople. This caused a Byzantine military action against them that finally brought Christianity to them. After the [[Arab Empire|Arab]] raids on the [[Adriatic coast]] c. 872 and the retreat of the Imperial Navy, the Narentines restored their raids of Venetian waters, causing new conflicts with the Italians in 887-888. The Narentine piracy traditions were cherished even while they were in [[Serbia]], serving as the finest Serb warriors. The Venetians futilely continued to fight them throughout the 10th-11th centuries. In 937, [[Irish people|Irish]] pirates sided with the Scots, Vikings, [[Picts]], and Welsh in their invasion of England. [[Athelstan]] drove them back. The [[Slavic piracy]] in the [[Baltic Sea]] ended with the Danish conquest of the [[Rani (Slavic tribe)|Rani]] stronghold of [[Cape Arkona|Arkona]] in 1168. In the 12th century the coasts of western Scandinavia were plundered by [[Curonians]] and [[Oeselians]] from the eastern coast of the [[Baltic Sea]]. In the 13th and 14th century pirates threatened the [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] routes and nearly brought sea trade to the brink of extinction. The [[Victual Brothers]] of [[Gotland]] were a companionship of [[privateer]]s who later turned to piracy. Until about 1440, maritime trade in both the [[North Sea]] and the Baltic Sea was seriously in danger of attack by the pirates. H Thomas Milhorn mentions a certain Englishman named [[William Maurice]], convicted of piracy in 1241, as the first person known to have been [[hanged, drawn and quartered]],<ref>H Thomas Milhorn, ''Crime: Computer Viruses to Twin Towers'', Universal Publishers, 2004. ISBN 1-58112-489-9.</ref> which would indicate that the then-ruling King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] took an especially severe view of this crime. The [[ushkuiniks]] were [[Novgorod]]ian pirates who looted the cities on the [[Volga]] and [[Kama]] Rivers in the 14th century. As early as [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] times, the [[Maniots]] - one of [[Greece]]'s toughest populations - were known as pirates. The Maniots considered piracy as a legitimate response to the fact that their land was poor and it became their main source of income. The main victims of Maniot pirates were the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] but the Maniots also targeted ships of European countries. The [[Haida]] and [[Tlingit]] tribes, who lived along the coast of southern [[Alaska]] and on islands in northwest [[British Columbia]], were traditionally known as fierce [[warrior]]s, pirates and [[slave trade|slave-traders]], raiding as far as [[California]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civilization.ca/aborig/haida/havwa01e.html|title=Haida Warfare}}</ref> ====On the Indian coast==== Since the 14th century the [[Deccan]] (Southern Peninsular region of India) was divided into two entities: on the one side stood the Muslim-ruled [[Bahmani Sultanate]], and on the other stood the Hindu kings rallied around the [[Vijayanagara Empire]]. Continuous wars demanded frequent resupplies of fresh horses, which were imported through sea routes from Persia and Africa. This trade was subjected to frequent raids by thriving bands of pirates based in the coastal cities of Western India. During the 16th and 17th centuries there was frequent European piracy against [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] Indian vessels, especially those en route to Mecca for [[Hajj]]. The situation came to a head, when Portuguese attacked and captured the vessel ''Rahimi'' which belonged to [[Mariam Zamani]] the Mughal queen, which led to the Mughal seizure of the Portuguese town Daman.<ref>Findly, Elison B (April - June 1988). "The Capture of Maryam-uz-Zamānī's Ship: Mughal Women and European Traders," ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', 108 (2): 227-238.</ref> In the 18th century, the famous [[Maratha Empire|Maratha]] privateer [[Kanhoji Angre]] ruled the seas between Mumbai and Goa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_world_history/v012/12.2risso.html|title=Cross-Cultural Perceptions of Piracy: Maritime Violence in the Western Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf Region during a Long Eighteenth Century}}</ref> The Marathas attacked British shipping and insisted that [[British East India Company|East India Company]] ships pay taxes if sailing through their waters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.national-army-museum.ac.uk/exhibitions/soldiersSeahawks/page2.shtml|title=Soldiers, Seahawks and Smugglers}}</ref> The most famous [[pirate utopia]] is that of Captain Misson and his pirate crew, who allegedly founded the free colony of [[Libertatia]] in northern [[Madagascar]] in the late 17th century. In 1694, it was destroyed in a surprise attack by the island natives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=869187|title=Libertatia}}</ref> The southern coast of the [[Persian Gulf]] became known as the ''Pirate Coast'' as raiders based there harassed foreign shipping. Early British expeditions to protect the [[Trade route|Indian Ocean trade]] from raiders at [[Ras al-Khaimah]] led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbors along the coast in 1819.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197306/from.pirate.coast.to.trucial.htm|title=From Pirate Coast To Trucial}}</ref> ====In East Asia==== {{main|Wokou}} [[File:Wokou.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Sixteenth century [[Wokou|Japanese]] pirate raids.]] From the 13th century, [[Wokou]] based in Japan made their debut in [[East Asia]], initiating invasions that would persist for 300 years. Piracy in South East Asia began with the retreating [[Yuan Dynasty|Mongol Yuan]] fleet after the betrayal by their Javanese allies (who, incidentally, would found the empire of [[Majapahit]] after the Mongols left). They preferred the junk, a ship using a more robust sail layout. Marooned navy officers, consisting mostly of Cantonese and Hokkien tribesmen, set up their small gangs near river estuaries, mainly to protect themselves. They recruited locals as common foot-soldiers known as 'lang' (lanun) to set up their fortresses. They survived by utilizing their well trained pugilists, as well as marine and navigation skills, mostly along Sumatran and Javanese estuaries. Their strength and ferocity coincided with the impending trade growth of the maritime silk and spice routes. However, the most powerful pirate fleets of East Asia were those of [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] pirates during the mid-[[Qing]] dynasty. Pirate fleets grew increasingly powerful throughout the early 19th century. The effects large-scale piracy had on the Chinese economy were immense. They preyed voraciously on China's junk trade, which flourished in [[Fujian]] and [[Guangdong]] and was a vital artery of Chinese commerce. Pirate fleets exercised [[hegemony]] over villages on the coast, collecting revenue by exacting tribute and running [[extortion]] rackets. In 1802, the menacing [[Cheng I|Zheng Yi]] inherited the fleet of his cousin, captain Zheng Qi, whose death provided Zheng Yi with considerably more influence in the world of piracy. Zheng Yi and his wife, [[Zheng Yi Sao]] (who would eventually inherit the leadership of his pirate confederacy) then formed a pirate coalition that, by 1804, consisted of over ten thousand men. Their military might alone was sufficient to combat the Qing navy. However, a combination of famine, Qing naval opposition, and internal rifts crippled piracy in China around the 1820s, and it has never again reached the same status. The [[Bugis|Buginese]] sailors of [[South Sulawesi]] were infamous as pirates who used to range as far west as [[Singapore]] and as far north as the [[Philippines]] in search of targets for piracy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.on-the-edge.com/articles/raja_ampat.php|title=The Buginese of Sulawesi}}</ref> The [[Orang laut]] pirates controlled shipping in the [[Piracy in the Strait of Malacca|Straits of Malacca]] and the waters around Singapore,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thingsasian.com/stories-photos/1997|title=Pirates of the East}}</ref> and the [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] and [[Iban people|Sea Dayak]] pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in [[Sarawak|Borneo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fullbooks.com/Wanderings-Among-South-Sea-Savages-And-in3.html|title=Wanderings Among South Sea Savages And in Borneo and the Philippines by H. Wilfrid Walker}}</ref> ====In Eastern Europe==== {{main|Cossacks|Uskoks}} One example of a pirate republic in Europe from the 16th through the 18th century was [[Zaporizhian Sich]]. Situated in the remote [[Steppe]], it was populated with Ukrainian peasants that had run away from their feudal masters, outlaws of every sort, destitute gentry, run-away slaves from Turkish [[galleys]], etc. The remoteness of the place and the rapids at the [[Dnepr]] river effectively guarded the place from invasions of vengeful powers. The main target of the inhabitants of [[Zaporizhian Sich]] who called themselves “[[Cossacks]]” were rich settlements at the [[Black Sea]] shores of [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Crimean Khanate]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wumag.kiev.ua/index2.php?param=pgs20051/98|title=Places which had been raided or besieged by the Cossacks}}</ref> By 1615 and 1625, [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] had even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of [[Istanbul]], forcing the [[Ottoman Sultan]] to flee his palace.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/unavy/aCossack1.html|title=Cossack Navy 16th - 17th Centuries}}</ref> [[Don Cossacks]] under [[Stenka Razin]] even ravaged the [[Iran|Persian]] coasts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cindyvallar.com/razin.html|title=The History of Maritime Piracy - Stepan Razin}}</ref> ====In North Africa==== {{main|Barbary pirates}} The Barbary pirates were pirates and [[privateers]] that operated from North African (the "[[Barbary coast]]") ports of [[Tunis]], [[Tripoli]], [[Algiers]], [[Salé]] and ports in [[Morocco]], preying on shipping in the western [[Mediterranean Sea]] from the time of the [[Crusades]] as well as on ships on their way to Asia around Africa until the early 19th century. The coastal villages and towns of [[Italy]], [[Spain]] and [[List of islands in the Mediterranean|Mediterranean islands]] were frequently attacked by them and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as [[Iceland]]. According to Robert Davis<ref>{{cite web|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|title=''When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed''}}</ref><ref>Davis, Robert. ''Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800''.[http://www.amazon.com/dp/1403945519]</ref> between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as [[Arab slave trade|slaves]] in [[North Africa]] and [[Ottoman Empire]] between the 16th and 19th centuries. The most famous [[corsair]]s were the Ottoman [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Hayreddin]] and his older brother [[Aruj|Barbarossa]] (Redbeard), [[Turgut Reis]] (known as Dragut in the West), [[Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis|Kurtoğlu]] (known as [[Kurtoğlu Muslihiddin Reis|Curtogoli]] in the West), [[Kemal Reis]], [[Salih Reis]] and [[Murat Reis the Older|Koca Murat Reis]]. A few Barbary pirates, such as [[Jan Janszoon]] and [[John Ward (pirate)|John Ward]], were renegade Christians who had converted to Islam. According to recent legal analysis{{Fact|date=April 2009}} by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], the United States treated captured Barbary corsairs as [[prisoners of war]], indicating that they were considered as legitimate privateers by at least some of their opponents, as well as by their home countries. ====In the Caribbean==== [[File:Pyle pirates treasfight.jpg|thumb|Pirates fight over treasure in a [[Howard Pyle]] illustration from ''Howard Pyle's Book of Pirates''.]] {{main|Piracy in the Caribbean}} In 1523, [[Jean Fleury]] seized two [[Spanish treasure fleet|Spanish treasure ships]] carrying [[Aztec]] treasures from Mexico to Spain[[Tortuga]] established in the 1640s and [[Port Royal]] after 1655. Among the most famous Caribbean pirates are [[Edward Teach]] or "Blackbeard" and [[Henry Morgan]]. ==Life as a pirate== In the popular modern imagination, pirates of the classical period were rebellious, clever teams who operated outside the restricting [[bureaucracy]] of modern life. Pirates were also depicted as always raising their [[Jolly Roger]]-flag when preparing to hijack a vessel. The Jolly Roger is the traditional name for the [[flag]]s of European and American pirates and a symbol for piracy that has been adopted by film-makers and toy manufacturers. ==Pirate Democracy== Unlike traditional Western societies of the time, many pirate crews operated as limited [[democracy|democracies]]. Pirate communities were some of the first to instate a system of checks and balances similar to the one used by the present-day United States and many other countries. The first record of such a government aboard a pirate sloop dates to the 1600s, a full century before the United States' and France's adoption of democracy in 1789, or Spain's move to democracy in 1812. <ref>Leeson, Peter T. “An-arrghchy: The Law and Economics of Pirate Organization.” Journal of Political Economy 115, no. 6 (2007): 1049-1094. pg 1066 [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/526403]</ref> Both the captain and the [[quartermaster]] were elected by the crew; they, in turn, appointed the other ship's officers. The captain of a pirate ship was often a fierce fighter in whom the men could place their trust, rather than a more traditional authority figure sanctioned by an elite. However, when not in battle, the quartermaster usually had the real authority. Many groups of pirates shared in whatever they seized; pirates injured in battle might be afforded special compensation similar to medical or disability insurance. There are contemporary records that many pirates placed a portion of any captured money into a central fund that was used to compensate the injuries sustained by the crew. Lists show standardised payments of 600 pieces of eight ($156,000 in modern currency) for the loss of a leg down to 100 pieces ($26,800) for loss of an eye. Often all of these terms were agreed upon and written down by the pirates, but these [[Pirate code of the Brethren|articles]] could also be used as incriminating proof that they were outlaws. Pirates readily accepted outcasts from traditional societies, perhaps easily recognizing kindred spirits, and they were known to welcome them into the pirate fold. For example as many as 40% of the pirate vessels crews were slaves liberated from captured slavers. Such practices within a pirate crew were tenuous, however, and did little to mitigate the brutality of the pirate's way of life. ==Treasure== Even though pirates raided many ships, few, if any, buried their treasure. Often, the "treasure" that was stolen was food, water, alcohol, weapons, or clothing. Other things they stole were household items like bits of soap and gear like rope and anchors, or sometimes they would keep the ship they captured (either to sell off or because it was better than their ship). Such items were likely to be needed immediately, rather than saved for future trade. For this reason, there was no reason for the pirates to bury these goods. Pirates tended to kill few people aboard the ships they captured, oftentimes they would kill no one if the ship surrendered, because if it became known that pirates took no prisoners, their victims would fight to the last and make victory very difficult, contrariwise ships would quickly surrender if they knew they would be spared. In one well documented case 300 heavily armed soldiers on a ship attacked by [[Thomas Tew]] surrendered after a brief battle with none of Tew's 40 man crew being injured.<ref>http://piratesofamerica.com/Pirates_of_America/Thomas_Tew.html</ref> ===Rewards of piracy=== Pirates had a system of hierarchy on board their ships determining how captured money was distributed. However, pirates were more “egalitarian” than any other area of employment with a high degree of equality. In fact pirate [[quartermaster]]s were a counterbalance to the captain and had the power to veto his orders. The majority of plunder was in the form of cargo and ships equipment with medicines the most highly prized. A vessel's doctor’s chest would be worth anywhere from £300 to £400 or around $470,000 in today’s values. Jewels were common plunder but not popular as they were hard to sell and pirates, unlike the public of today, had little concept of their value. There is one case recorded where a pirate was given a large diamond worth a great deal more than the value of the handful of small diamonds given his crewmates as a share. He felt cheated and had it broken up to match what they received.<ref name="Vallar">{{cite web|url= http://www.cindyvallar.com/treasure.html|title=Treasure|accessdate=2009-04-21}}</ref> [[Spanish dollar|Spanish pieces of eight]] minted in [[Mexico]] or [[Seville]] were the standard trade currency in the American colonies. However, every colony still used the monetary units of pounds, shillings and pence for bookkeeping while Spanish, German, French and Portuguese money were all standard mediums of exchange as British law prohibited the export of British silver coinage. Until the exchange rates were standardised in the late 1700s each colony legislated its own different exchange rates. In England, 1 piece of eight was worth 4s 3d while it was worth 8s in [[New York]], 7s 6d in [[Pennsylvania]] and 6s 8d in [[Virginia]]. One 18th century English shilling was worth around $58 in modern currency so a piece of eight could be worth anywhere from $246 to $465. As such, the value of pirate plunder could vary considerably depending on who recorded it and where.<ref>http://www.hudsonrivervalley.net/AMERICANBOOK/18.html</ref><ref>http://www.coins.nd.edu/ColCurrency/CurrencyIntros/IntroValue.html</ref> Ordinary seamen received a part of the plunder at the captains’ discretion but usually a single share. On average, a pirate could expect the equivalent of a years wages as his share from each ship captured while the crew of the most successful pirates would often each receive a share valued at around £1,000 ($1.17 million) at least once in their career.<ref name="Vallar"/> One of the larger amounts taken from a single ship was that by captain [[Thomas Tew]] from an [[India]]n merchantman in 1692. Each ordinary seaman on his ship received a share worth £3,000 ($3.5 million) with officers receiving proportionally larger amounts as per the agreed shares with Tew himself receiving 2½ shares. It is known there were actions with multiple ships captured where a single share was worth almost double this.<ref name="Vallar"/><ref name="Gosse">{{Cite book |last= Gosse|first= Philip |title= The Pirates' Who's Who|publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC|year=2007 |isbn=1434633020}} p. 251.</ref> By contrast, an ordinary seamen in the [[Royal Navy]] received 19s per month to be paid in a lump sum at the end of a tour of duty which was around half the rate paid in the [[Merchant Navy]]. However, corrupt officers would often “tax” their crews wage to supplement their own and the Royal Navy of the day was infamous for its reluctance to pay. From this wage, 6d per month was deducted for the maintenance of [[Greenwich Hospital]] with similar amounts deducted for the [[Chatham Chest]], the [[chaplain]] and [[surgeon]]. Six months pay was withheld to discourage desertion. That this was insufficient incentive is revealed in a report on proposed changes to the RN [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Admiral Nelson]] wrote in 1803, he noted that since 1793 more than 42,000 sailors had deserted. Roughly half of all RN crews were [[Impressment|pressganged]] and these not only received lower wages than volunteers but were shackled while the vessel was docked and never permitted to go ashore until released from service. ===Punishment=== During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, once pirates were caught, justice was meted out in a summary fashion, and many ended their lives by "dancing the hempen jig", or hanging at the end of a rope. Public execution was a form of entertainment at the time, and people came out to watch them as they would to a sporting event today. Newspapers were glad to report every detail, such as recording the condemned men's last words, the prayers said by the priests for their immortal souls, and their final agonising moments on the gallows. In England most of these executions took place at Execution Dock on the River Thames in London. In the cases of more famous prisoners, usually captains, their punishments extended beyond death. Their bodies were enclosed in [[gibbet|iron cages]] (for which they were measured before their execution) and left to swing in the air until the flesh rotted off them- a process that could take as long as two years. The bodies of captains such as William Kidd, Charles Vane, William Fly, and Jack Rackham were all treated this way. <ref name="Pirates by John Matthews">Pirates by John Matthews</ref> ==Famous historical pirates/privateers== [[File:Morgan,Henry.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Sir Henry Morgan]]]] {{main|List of pirates}} <table><tr><td style="vertical-align:top;"> *Captain [[Thomas Anstis]] *[[Louis-Michel Aury]] *"Black Sam" [[Samuel Bellamy]] *[[Stede Bonnet]] *[[Anne Bonny]] *[[Roche Braziliano]] *[[Nathaniel Butler]] *[[Jacob Collaart]] *[[Simon de Danser]] *[[Pierius Magnus|Pier Gerlofs Donia]] *[[Sir Francis Drake]] *[[Hendrick Lucifer]] *[[Michel de Grammont|Chevalier de Grammont]] <td style="vertical-align:top;"> *[[Richard Hawkins]] *[[Jan Janszoon]] *[[William Kidd]] *[[Henry Every]] *[[Jean Lafitte]] *[[Kanhoji Angre]] *[[Jean Fleury]] *[[Edward Low]] *[[William Dampier]] *[[François l'Ollonais]] *[[Grace O'Malley]] *[[Samuel Mason]] *[[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] <td style="vertical-align:top;"> *[[Sir Henry Morgan]] *[[Christopher Newport]] *[[Calico Jack|Calico Jack Rackham]] *[[Moric Benovsky]] *[[Mary Read]] *[[Wijerd Jelckama]] *[[Kemal Reis]] *[[Turgut Reis]] *"Black Bart" [[Bartholomew Roberts]] *[[Zheng Yi Sao]] *[[Zheng Zhilong]] *[[Klaus Stoertebeker]] *[[Robert Surcouf]] *"Blackbeard" [[Edward Teach]] </tr></td></table> ==Privateers== {{main|Privateer}} A '''privateer''' or '''[[corsair]]''' used similar methods to a pirate, but acted while in possession of a commission or [[letter of marque]] from a government or monarch authorizing the capture of merchant ships belonging to an enemy nation. For example, the [[United States Constitution]] of 1787 specifically authorized [[United States Congress|Congress]] to issue letters of marque and reprisal. The letter of marque was recognized by international convention and meant that a privateer could not technically be charged with piracy while attacking the targets named in his commission. This nicety of law did not always save the individuals concerned, however, as whether one was considered a pirate or a legally operating privateer often depended on whose custody the individual found himself in&mdash;that of the country that had issued the commission, or that of the object of attack. Spanish authorities were known to execute foreign privateers with their letters of marque hung around their necks to emphasize Spain's rejection of such defenses. Furthermore, many privateers exceeded the bounds of their letters of marque by attacking nations with which their sovereign was at peace ([[Thomas Tew]] and [[William Kidd]] are notable examples), and thus made themselves liable to conviction for piracy. However, a letter of marque did provide some cover for such pirates, as plunder seized from neutral or friendly shipping could be passed off later as taken from enemy merchants. The famous [[Barbary pirates|Barbary Corsairs]] of the [[Mediterranean]] were privateers, as were the Maltese Corsairs, who were authorized by the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of St. John]], and the [[Dunkirkers]] in the service of the [[Spanish Empire]]. From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates.<ref>Rees Davies, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml British Slaves on the Barbary Coast], [[BBC]], July 1, 2003.</ref> One famous privateer was [[Sir Francis Drake]]. His patron was Queen Elizabeth I, and their relationship ultimately proved to be quite profitable for [[England]].<ref name=Kelsey>Kelsey, Harry, ''Sir Francis Drake; The Queen's Pirate'', Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998, ISBN 0-300-07182-5.</ref> Privateers were a large proportion of the total military force at sea during the 17th and 18th centuries. During the [[Nine Years War]], the French adopted a policy of strongly encouraging privateers, including the famous [[Jean Bart]], to attack English and Dutch shipping. England lost roughly 4,000 merchant ships during the war.<ref name=Privateer>[http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj11n1/cj11n1-8.pdf Privateering and the Private Production of Naval Power], ''Gary M. Anderson and Adam Gifford Jr.''</ref> In the following [[War of Spanish Succession]], privateer attacks continued, Britain losing 3,250 merchant ships.<ref>Brewer, John. ''The Sinews of Power: War, Money, and the English State, 1688-1783.'' New York.: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. p. 197.</ref> During the [[War of Austrian Succession]], the Britain lost 3,238 merchant ships and France lost 3,434 merchant ships to the British.<ref name=Privateer/> During the [[King George's War]], approximately 36,000 Americans served aboard privateers at one time or another.<ref name=Privateer/> During the [[American Revolution]], about 55,000 American seamen served aboard the privateers.<ref>[http://www.usmm.org/revolution.html Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War].</ref> The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/navy/privateer.htm Privateers].</ref> Between the end of the Revolutionary War and 1812, less than 30 years, the Britain, France, Naples, the Barbary States, Spain, and the Netherlands seized approximately 2,500 American ships.<ref>[http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/usa/usn1812.html US Navy Fleet List War of 1812].</ref> Payments in ransom and tribute to the [[Barbary states]] amounted to 20% of United States government annual revenues in 1800.<ref>{{cite web|last=Oren|first=Michael B.|title=The Middle East and the Making of the United States, 1776 to 1815|date=2005-11-03|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/11/michaelOren.html| accessdate=2007-02-18}}</ref> Throughout the American Civil War, [[Confederate privateer]]s successfully harassed Union merchant ships.<ref>[http://www.sc.edu/uscpress/1994/3005.html The Confederate Privateers].</ref> Privateering lost international sanction under the [[Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law|Declaration of Paris]] in 1856. ==Modern age== {{seealso|Somalia|Piracy in the Strait of Malacca}} ===Overview === [[File:Dhow in Indian Ocean.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A modern [[dhow]] suspected of piracy]] Seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of [[United States dollar|US $]]13 to $16 billion per year),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20041101faessay83606/gal-luft-anne-korin/terrorism-goes-to-sea.html |title=Foreign Affairs - Terrorism Goes to Sea |accessdate=2007-12-08 |work= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/BG1379.cfm?renderforprint=1 |title=Piracy in Asia: A Growing Barrier to Maritime Trade |accessdate=2007-12-08 |format= |work= }}</ref> particularly in the waters between the Red sea and [[Indian Ocean]]s, [[Piracy in Somalia|off the Somali coast]], and also in the [[Strait of Malacca]] and [[Singapore]], which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year. A recent<ref>{{cite web | title= U.S. Navy warships exchange gunfire with suspected pirates off Somali coast | url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002874180_websomalia19.html?syndication=rss | dateformat=mdy | accessdate=January 18, 2007 }}</ref> surge in piracy off the Somali coast spurred a multi-national effort led by the [[United States]] to patrol the waters near the [[Horn of Africa]]. While ships off the coasts of North Africa, [[Iran]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] are still assailed by pirates, the [[United States Navy]] and the [[U.S. Coast Guard]] have nearly eradicated piracy in U.S. waters and in the [[Caribbean Sea]].{{Fact|date=January 2008}} Modern pirates favor small boats and taking advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels. They also use large vessels to supply the smaller attack/boarding vessels. Modern pirates can be successful because a large amount of international commerce occurs via shipping. Major shipping routes take cargo ships through narrow bodies of water (such as the [[Gulf of Aden]] and the [[Strait of Malacca]]) making them vulnerable to be overtaken and boarded by small [[motorboat]]s.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/documentaries/2008/03/080303_pirates_prog2.shtml BBC Piracy documentary].</ref><ref>[http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/~ar120/somalia.html Piracy at Somalian coasts].</ref> Other active areas include the [[South China Sea]] and the [[Niger Delta]]. As usage increases, many of these ships have to lower cruising speeds to allow for navigation and traffic control, making them prime targets for piracy. Small ships are also capable of disguising themselves as fishing vessels or cargo vessels when not carrying out piracy in order to avoid or deceive inspectors.{{Facts|date=April 2008}} Also, pirates often operate in regions of developing or struggling countries with smaller navies and large trade routes. Pirates sometimes evade capture by sailing into waters controlled by their pursuer's enemies. With the end of the [[Cold War]], navies have decreased size and patrol, and trade has increased, making organized piracy far easier. Modern pirates are sometimes linked with organized-crime syndicates, but often are parts of small individual groups. Pirate attack crews may consist of 4 to 10 sailors for going after a ship's safe (raiding) or up to 70 (depending entirely on the ships and the ships crew size) if the plan is to seize the whole vessel.{{Facts|date=April 2008}} The [[International Maritime Bureau]] (IMB) maintains statistics regarding pirate attacks dating back to 1995. Their records indicate hostage-taking overwhelmingly dominates the types of violence against seafarers. For example in 2006, there were 239 attacks, 77 crew members were kidnapped and 188 taken hostage but only 15 of the pirate attacks resulted in murder.<ref>[http://www.securitymanagement.com/article/eastern-inscrutability-piracy-high-seas Security Management:Piracy on the high seas] Accessed on October 23, 2007.</ref> In 2007 the attacks rose by 10% to 263 attacks. There was a 35% increase on reported attacks involving guns. Crew members that were injured numbered 64 compared to just 17 in 2006.<ref name=ICC_piracy_report>[http://www.icc-ccs.org/main/news.php?newsid=102 ICC Commercial Crime Services: IBM Piracy Report 2007] Accessed on January 22, 2008.</ref> That number does not include hostages/kidnapping where they were not injured. In some cases, modern pirates are not interested in the cargo and are mainly interested in taking the personal belongings of the crew and the contents of the ship's safe, which might contain large amounts of cash needed for payroll and port fees. In other cases, the pirates force the crew off the ship and then sail it to a port to be repainted and given a new identity through false papers often purchased from corrupt or complicit officials.<ref>"Anarchy at Sea" Atlantic Monthly. September, 2003.</ref> Modern piracy can also take place in conditions of political unrest. For example, following the U.S. withdrawal from [[Vietnam]], Thai piracy was aimed at the many Vietnamese who took to boats to escape. Further, following the disintegration of the government of [[Somalia]], [[warlord]]s in the region have attacked ships delivering [[United Nations|UN]] food aid.<ref>{{cite web | title=Pirates Open Fire on Cruise Ship off Somalia | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/05/AR2005110500622.html?nav=hcmodule | dateformat=mdy | accessdate=November 14, 2005 }}</ref> [[File:060318-N-8623S-002.jpg|thumb|250px|Armed suspected pirates in the [[Indian Ocean]] near [[Somalia]]]] Environmental action groups such as [[Sea Shepherd]] have been accused of engaging in piracy and terrorism when they sink ships by [[scuttling]] them, or ram them and throw [[butyric acid]] (rancid butter) on their decks, and in one instance illegally boarding a Japanese whaling vessel. While only non-lethal weapons are used by the Sea Shepherd ships, their tactics and methods are considered acts of piracy.<ref name="acid">{{cite news|title=Whaling acid attack terrorist act: Japan|publisher=Reuters via [[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|date=2007-02-09|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/World/Whaling-acid-attack-terrorist-act-Japan/2007/02/09/1170524300133.html|accessdate=2007-02-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bousquet|first=Earl|title=Ocean Warriors Confront Lucian Fishermen|publisher=Government of [[Saint Lucia]] web site|date=2001-07-23|url=http://www.stlucia.gov.lc/pr2001/ocean_warriors_confront_lucian_fishermen.htm|accessdate=2007-02-11}}</ref> The attack against the U.S. cruise ship the ''[[The Seabourn Spirit|Seabourn Spirit]]'' offshore of Somalia in November 2005 is an example of the sophisticated pirates mariners face. The pirates carried out their attack more than {{convert|100|mi|km}} offshore with speedboats launched from a larger mother ship. The attackers were armed with automatic firearms and an [[Rocket-propelled grenade|RPG]].<ref>"Piracy is still troubling the shipping industry: report; Industry fears revival of attacks though current situation has improved," The Business Times Singapore. August 14, 2006.</ref> Many nations forbid ships to enter their territorial waters or ports if the crew of the ships are armed in an effort to restrict possible piracy.<ref>Maritimesecurity.com article, [http://www.maritimesecurity.com/gunsonboard.htm Guns On Board].</ref> Shipping companies sometimes hire private [[security guard]]s. Modern definitions of piracy include the following acts: * [[Kidnapping]] of people for [[ransom]] * [[Robbery]] * [[Murder]] * [[seizure (law)|Seizure]] of items or the ship * [[Sabotage]] resulting in the ship subsequently sinking In modern times, ships and airplanes are [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacked]] for political reasons as well. The perpetrators of these acts could be described as pirates (for instance, the French for "plane hijacker" is ''pirate de l'air'', literally "air pirate"), but in English are usually termed "hijackers". An example is the hijacking of the [[Italy|Italian]] civilian passenger ship ''[[Achille Lauro]]'', which is generally regarded as an act of piracy. Modern pirates also use a great deal of technology. It has been reported that crimes of piracy have involved the use of [[mobile phone]]s, modern [[speedboat]]s, [[Machete]]s, [[assault rifles]], [[shotgun]]s, [[pistol]]s, mounted [[machine gun]]s, and even [[Rocket propelled grenade|RPGs]] and [[grenade launcher]]s.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Anne Bonny 2009-07-28T18:44:50Z 2009-07-28T18:44:50 2009-07-28T18:44:50Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>'''Anne Bonny''' (March 8, 1700 – possibly April 25, 1782) was an [[Irish American]] [[pirate]] who plied her trade in the [[Caribbean]]. == Early life == Much of what is known about Anne Bonny is based on Captain pirate biographer, Charles Johnson's "A General History of the Pyrates." Official records and contemporary letters dealing with her life are scarce. Most details about her life prior to her arrival in the Bahamas do not appear to be based on any primary source evidence, including the claims that she was born in 1698 in [[County Cork]], [[Ireland]]; that she was a daughter of attorney William Cormac and his maidservant; that her mother was named Mary Brennan and her grandmother was named Peg; and that, when the affair became public, Cormac moved to [[Charleston, South Carolina]] where he made a fortune and bought a large [[plantation]]. Diligent efforts to source all of these claims continue in earnest by pirate historians. == Marriage and affair with a pirate == The few records of Bonny which exist seem to reflect that she was intelligent, attractive, and quick-tempered. When she was 13, she supposedly stabbed a servant girl in the stomach with a table knife, although it is unclear whether this is fact or purely legend. She married a sailor and small-time pirate named James Bonny. According to legend, James Bonny hoped to win possession of his wife's family estate, but she was disowned by her father. There is no evidence supporting the story that Anne Bonny started a fire on the plantation in retaliation, but it is known that sometime between 1714 and 1718 she and James Bonny moved to [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]], on [[New Providence Island]] in the [[Bahamas]], which was then a pirate hub and base for many pirate operations. It is also true that after the arrival of Governor Woodes Rogers in the summer of 1718, James Bonny became an informant for the governor. While in the Bahamas, Anne Bonny began mingling with pirates at the local drinking establishments, and met the pirate [[Calico Jack|John "Calico Jack" Rackham]], with whom she had an affair. While Rackham and many other pirates were enjoying the King's pardon in the New Providence, James dragged Anne before Gov. Rogers to demand she be flogged for adultery and returned to him. There was even an offer for Rackham to buy her in a [[divorce]]-by-purchase, but Anne refused to be "bought and sold like cattle." She was sentenced to the flogging, but later Anne and Rackham escaped to live together as pirates. == Life as a pirate == Bonny did not disguise herself as a man in order to join Rackham's crew aboard the ''Revenge'' as is often claimed. In fact, she and [[Mary Read]] helped Rackham steal the [[sloop]] at anchor in Nassau harbour and set off to sea, putting together a crew and taking several prizes. She took part in combat alongside the men, and the accounts describing her exploits present her as competent, effective in combat, and someone who gained the respect of her fellow pirates. She and Mary Read's name and gender were, however, known to all from the start, including Gov. Rogers, who named them in a "pirates wanted" circular published in the continent's only newspaper, the ''Boston News-Letter''. Over the next several months, she and Rackham saw several successes as pirates, capturing many ships and bringing in an abundance of treasure. Although Bonny is one of the best-known pirates in history, she never commanded a ship of her own. Her renown derives from the fact that she was a rarity: a female pirate. == Capture and imprisonment == In October 1720, Rackham and his crew were attacked by a sloop captained by Jonathan Barnet, who was working for the governor of [[Jamaica]]. Most of Rackham's pirates did not put up much resistance as many of them were too drunk to fight. However, Read and Bonny, who were sober, fought fiercely and managed to hold off Barnet's troops for a short time. After their capture, Rackham and his crew were sentenced by the Governor of Jamaica to be [[hanging|hanged]]. According to Johnson, Bonny's last words to the imprisoned Rackham were that "she was sorry to see him there, but if he had fought like a Man, he need not have been hang'd like a Dog." After their arrest and trial, Read and Bonny both [[Pleading the belly|pleaded their bellies]], announcing during the sentencing phase that they were both pregnant. In accordance with [[English common law]], both women received a temporary [[stay of execution]] until they gave birth. Read died in prison, most likely from a fever, though it has been alleged that she died during [[labour (childbirth)|childbirth]]. ==Disappearance from the record== There is no historical record of Bonny's release or of her execution. This has fed speculation that her father [[ransom]]ed her; that she might have returned to her husband, or even that she resumed a life of piracy under a new identity. However, the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' states that "Evidence provided by the descendants of Anne Bonny suggests that her father managed to secure her release from jail and bring her back to Charles Town, South Carolina, where she gave birth to Rackham's second child. On December 21, 1721 she married a local man, Joseph Burleigh, and they had eight children. She died in South Carolina, a respectable woman, at the age of eighty-two and was buried on April 25, 1782. This however is a complete supposition. ==External links== *[http://www.thewayofthepirates.com/famous-pirates/anne-bonny.php Anne Bonny] at [http://www.thewayofthepirates.com/ TheWayofthePirates.com] * [http://arthur-ransome.org/ar/literary/pyrates.htm The Lives of Mary Read and Anne Bonny] * [http://blindkat.hegewisch.net/pirates/whosanne.html Pirates of the Caribbean - Anne Bonny]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Pantheon Rome 2009-07-15T03:57:59Z 2009-07-15T03:57:59 2009-07-15T03:57:59Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>The '''Pantheon''' is a building in [[Rome]], originally built by [[Marcus Agrippa]] as a [[temple]] to all the gods of [[Ancient Rome]], and rebuilt in the early 2nd century AD. The intended degree of inclusiveness of this dedication is debated. The generic term ''pantheon'' is now applied to a monument in which illustrious dead are buried. The building is circular with a [[portico]] of three ranks of huge granite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two groups of four behind) under a pediment opening into the [[rotunda (architecture)|rotunda]], under a coffered, concrete [[dome]], with a central opening ([[oculus]]) open to the sky. The Pantheon is the oldest large-scale dome in Rome. The height to the [[oculus]] and the diameter of the interior circle are the same, {{convert|43.3|m|ft}}. A rectangular structure links the portico with the rotunda. It is one of the best preserved of all Roman buildings. It has been in continuous use throughout its history. Since the 7th century, the Pantheon has been used as a [[Roman Catholic]] [[church (building)|church]] dedicated to "St. Mary and the Martyrs" but informally known as "Santa Maria Rotonda."</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Mauryan 2009-07-14T20:06:26Z 2009-07-14T20:06:26 2009-07-14T20:06:26Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> The '''Maurya Empire''' was a geographically extensive and powerful [[empire]] in '''ancient [[Greater India|India]]''', ruled by the '''Mauryan dynasty''' from 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the kingdom of [[Magadha]] in the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]] (modern [[Bihar]], eastern [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bengal]]) in the eastern side of the [[Indian subcontinent]], the empire had its capital city at [[Pataliputra]] (near modern [[Patna]]). The Empire was founded in 322 BC by [[Chandragupta Maurya]], who had overthrown the [[Nanda Dynasty]] and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western [[India]] taking advantage of the disruptions of local [[power (international)|powers]] in the wake of the withdrawal westward by [[Alexander the Great]]'s Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the [[satrap]]s left by Alexander. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the [[Himalayas]], and to the east stretching into what is now [[Assam]]. To the west, it reached beyond modern [[Pakistan]], annexing [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] and much of what is now [[Afghanistan]], including the modern [[Herat Province|Herat]] and [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]] provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and [[Bindusara]], but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]] (modern [[Orissa]]). The Mauryan Empire was one of the largest empires to rule the Indian subcontinent. Its decline began fifty years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the [[Sunga Dynasty]] in Magadha. Under [[Chandragupta]], the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-[[Indus]] region, which was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus I]], a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, both internal and external trade, and agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration and security. After the [[Kalinga War]], the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka: India was a prosperous and stable empire of great economic and military power whose political influence and trade extended across Western and Central Asia and Europe. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of [[Jainism]] increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of [[Buddhism]] was the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into [[Sri Lanka]], Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe. Chandragupta's minister [[Kautilya Chanakya]] wrote the ''[[Arthashastra]]'', one of the greatest treatises on [[economics]], politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion ever produced in the India. Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of [[Northern Black Polished Ware]] (NBPW). The ''Arthashastra'' and the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] are primary sources of written records of the Mauryan times. The Mauryan empire is considered one of the most significant periods in Indian history. The ''[[Lion Capital of Asoka]]'' at [[Sarnath]], is the [[emblem of India]]. ==Background== [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] set up a Greek-Macedonian garrison and [[satrapies]] (vassal states) in the trans-Indus region of modern day [[Pakistan]], ruled previously by kings [[Ambhi]] of [[Taxila]] and [[Porus]] of [[Pauravas]] (modern day [[Jhelum (city)|Jhelum]]). ===Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya=== {{main|Chanakya|Chandragupta Maurya}} [[Image:India CG3.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The court of [[Chandragupta Maurya]], especially [[Chanakya]], played an important part in the foundation and governance of the [[Maurya dynasty]].]] Following Alexander's advance into the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], a [[brahmin]] named [[Chanakya]] (real name Vishnugupt, also known as Kautilya) traveled to [[Magadha]], a kingdom that was large and militarily-powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was dismissed by its king Dhana, of the [[Nanda Dynasty]]. However, the prospect of battling Magadha deterred Alexander's troops from going further east: he returned to [[Babylon]], and re-deployed most of his troops west of the [[Indus River|Indus]] river. When Alexander died in [[Babylon]], soon after in [[323 BCE]], his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller satraps in a disunited state. Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana. The Greek generals [[Eudemus (general)|Eudemus]], and [[Peithon, son of Agenor|Peithon]], ruled until around [[316 BCE]], when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) surprised and defeated the Macedonians and consolidated the region under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha. [[Chandragupta Maurya]]'s rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama ''[[Mudrarakshasa]]'' (''Poem of Rakshasa'' - ''Rakshasa'' was the prime minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A [[kshatriya]] tribe known as the [[Maurya]]'s are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, [[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]]. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "[[Sandrokottos]]". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.<ref>:"Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth." Plutarch 62-3 [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243&layout=&loc=62.1 Plutarch 62-3]</ref> He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.<ref>:"He was of humble origin, but was pushing to acquiring the throne by the superior power of the mind. When after having offensed the king of Nanda by his insolence, he was comdemned to death by the king, he was saved by the speed of his own feet... He gathered bandits and invited Indian to a change of rule." Justin XV.4.15 "Fuit hic humili quidem genere natus, sed ad regni potestatem maiestate numinis inpulsus. Quippe cum procacitate sua Nandrum regem offendisset, interfici a rege iussus salutem pedum ceieritate quaesierat. (Ex qua fatigatione cum somno captus iaceret, leo ingentis formae ad dormientem accessit sudoremque profluentem lingua ei detersit expergefactumque blande reliquit. Hoc prodigio primum ad spem regni inpulsus) contractis latronibus Indos ad nouitatem regni sollicitauit." [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/texte15.html Justin XV.4.15]</ref> Chanakya's original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandragupta's command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus (Sir John Marshall "Taxila", p18, and al.) This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians)<ref> :"asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih :Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara :balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama" ::(Sanskrit original, Mudrarakshasa 2).</ref> <ref>The '''Hunas''' mentioned in Mudrarakshasa play (II) of Vishakhadatta are same people as the '''Harahunas''' of the [[Mahabharata]] (II.32.12). They were located in Herat/Aria according to Dr Moti Chandra and were an earlier branch of the Hunas (See: Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 66, Dr Moti Chandra; Also: Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, 1971, p 33, Dr D. C. Sircar.</ref> <ref> For Harahunas being a group pf the Hunas, see also: ''Early History of Iranians and Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1980, p 118, Dr Michael Witzel, Harvard University''.</ref>. With the help of these frontier martial tribes from Central Asia, Chandragupta was able to defeat the Nanda/Nandin rulers of Magadha and found the powerful Maurya empire in northern India. ===Conquest of Magadha=== {{main|Chandragupta Maurya|Nanda Dynasty|Magadha}} Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, other accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the rulers of small states. Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman. <gallery> Image:Magadha.GIF|The approximate extent of the [[Magadha]] state in the 5th century BCE. Image:Nanda Empire.gif|The [[Nanda Dynasty|Nanda Empire]] at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda ''circa'' 323 BCE. Image:Chandragupta Empire 320 BC.gif|The Maurya Empire when it was first founded by [[Chandragupta Maurya]] ''circa'' 320 BCE, after conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about 20 years old. Image:Chandragupta mauryan empire 305 BC.gif|Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire towards [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] [[Persian Empire|Persia]] after defeating [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] ''circa'' 305 BCE.<ref name=Majumdar>Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977), ''Ancient India'', [[Motilal Banarsidass]], ISBN 8120804368</ref> Image:Chandragupta Maurya Empire.gif|Chandragupta extended the borders of the empire southward into the [[Deccan Plateau]] ''circa'' 300 BC.<ref>Radhakumud Mookerji (1988). ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'' (p. 39). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 8120804058.</ref> Image:Mauryan Empire Map.gif|[[Ashoka the Great]] extended into [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]] during the [[Kalinga War]] ''circa'' 265 BCE, and established superiority over the southern kingdoms. </gallery> ===Chandragupta Maurya=== {{main|Chandragupta Maurya}} {{Kings of Maurya Empire}}  [[Image:ChandraguptaStamp.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[India]]n [[postage stamp]] depicting [[Chandragupta Maurya]]]] Chandragupta was again in conflict with the Greeks when [[Seleucus I]], ruler of the [[Seleucid Empire]], tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, during a campaign in 305 BCE, but failed. The two rulers finally concluded a peace treaty: a marital treaty ([[Epigamia]]) was concluded, implying either a marital alliance between the two dynastic lines or a recognition of marriage between Greeks and Indians, Chandragupta received the satrapies of [[Paropamisade]] ([[Kamboja]] and [[Gandhara]]), [[Arachosia]] ([[Kandhahar]]) and [[Gedrosia]] ([[Baluchistan (region)|Balochistan]]), and [[Seleucus I]] received 500 [[war elephants]] that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western [[Hellenistic]] kings at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian [[Megasthenes]], [[Deimakos]] and [[Dionysius (ambassador)|Dionysius]] resided at the Mauryan court. Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was ''"surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers— (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous [[Persian Empire|Persian]] sites such as [[Susa]] and [[Ecbatana]]."'' Chandragupta's son [[Bindusara]] extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named [[Deimachus]] ([[Strabo]] 1&ndash;70). Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live simply, honestly, and do not know writing: :" The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike a great undisciplined multitude, and consequently they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any one day did not exceed the value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people who have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all the business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily enough, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at sacrifices. Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food is principally a rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 53-56, quoting Megasthenes<ref>[http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm Source:Megasthenes fragment XXVII]</ref> ===Bindusara=== {{main|Bindusara}} ===Asoka the Great=== {{main|Ashoka the Great}} [[Image:Ashoka2.jpg|frame|right|Emperor [[Ashoka The Great]]]] Chandragupta's grandson was Ashokavardhan Maurya, better known as [[Ashoka|Ashoka the Great]] (ruled 273- 232 BCE). As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Taxila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]] which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried 'what have I done?'. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], and renounced war and violence. For a monarch in ancient times, this was an historic feat. Ashoka implemented principles of ''[[ahimsa]]'' by banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India. The [[Edicts of Ashoka]], set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as [[Afghanistan]] and as far south as Andhra ([[Nellore District]]), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in [[Greek language|Greek]], and one in both Greek and [[Aramaic]]. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks, [[Kambojas]], and [[Gandhara]]s as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] world at the time such as ''Amtiyoko'' ([[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochus]]), ''Tulamaya'' ([[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy]]), ''Amtikini'' ([[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonos]]), ''Maka'' ([[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]]) and ''Alikasudaro'' ([[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander]]) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).<ref>[[Edicts of Ashoka]], 13th Rock Edict, translation S. Dhammika.</ref> <gallery> Image:Emblem of India.svg| A representation of the [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]], which was erected around [[250 BCE]]. It is the [[emblem of India]]. Image:MauryaStatuettes.jpg|Statuettes of the Maurya period, 4th-3rd century BCE. [[Musée Guimet]]. Image:AiKhanoumAndIndia.jpg|The distribution of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]].<ref>Reference: "India: The Ancient Past" p.113, Burjor Avari, Routledge, ISBN 0415356156</ref> is a concrete indication of the extent of Ashoka's rule. To the West, it went as far as [[Kandahar]] (where the Edicts were written in Greek and [[Aramaic]]), and bordered the contemporary Hellenistic metropolis of [[Ai Khanoum]]. </gallery> ==Administration== [[Image:MauryanRingstone.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. [[British Museum]].]] The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents. with the imperial capital at [[Pataliputra]]. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), [[Ujjain]] in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and [[Taxila]] (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the ''Kumara'' (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The ''kumara'' was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his ''Mantriparishad'' (Council of Ministers). Historians theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by [[Kautilya]] in the [[Arthashastra]]: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its time{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. A vast [[espionage]] system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia. ==Economy== [[Image:MauryanCoin.JPG|left|thumb|Silver punch mark coin of the '''Mauryan empire''', with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.]] For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally-administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the ''Arthashastra''. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace. [[Image:MauryanCastCopperCoinLate3rdCenturyBCE.jpg|thumb|left|Mauryan cast copper coin. Late [[3rd century BCE]]. [[British Museum]].]] Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The [[Khyber Pass]], on the modern boundary of [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]], became a strategically-important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the [[Malay peninsula]] into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many overly-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire. In many ways, the economic situation in the Maurya Empire is comparable to the Roman Empire several centuries later, which both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to [[corporation]]s. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities which existed purely for private commerce. This was due to the Mauryas having to contend with pre-existing private commercial entities hence they were more concerned about keeping the support of these pre-existing organizations, while the Romans did not have such pre-existing entities to contend with hence they were able to prevent such entities from developing.<ref>Khanna, Vikramaditya S. (2005). [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=796464 ''The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India.''] [[University of Michigan]].</ref> (See also [[Economic history of India]].) ==Religion== [[Image:MauryaStupa.jpg|thumb|[[Buddhist]] [[stupa]]s during the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations. [[Butkara stupa]], 3rd century BCE.<ref>Source: "Butkara I", Facenna.</ref>]] [[Image:Asoka Kaart.gif|thumb|Buddhist [[proselytism]] at the time of king [[Ashoka]] ([[260 BC|260]]-[[218 BCE]]).]] [[Image:MauryanBalaramaCoin3rd-2ndCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|[[Balarama]], holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was originally a powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and later became an avatar of [[Vishnu]]. 3rd-2nd century CE. [[British Museum]].]] [[Image:CunninghamMauryan.jpg|thumb|200px|Mauryan architecture in the [[Barabar Mounts]]. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century BCE.]] ===Jainism=== Emperor Chandragupta Maurya became the first major Indian monarch to initiate a religious transformation at the highest level when he embraced [[Jainism]], a religious movement resented by orthodox Hindu priests who usually attended the imperial court. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of [[Acharya Bhadrabahu]]. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self purifying [[Jain]] ritual of [[santhara]] i.e. fast unto death, at [[Shravana Belagola]] in [[Karnataka]]. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, preserved Hindu traditions and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. [[Samprati]], the grandson of [[Ashoka]] also embraced [[Jainism]]. Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monk [[Arya Suhasti Suri]] and he is known to have built 125,000 [[Jain Temples]] across India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. But till date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. [[Chandragupta]] & [[Samprati]], are credited for spread of [[Jainism]] in [[Southern India]]. Lakhs of [[Jain Temples]] & [[Jain Stupas]] were erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal patronage & its strict principles, along with rise of [[Shankaracharya]] & [[Ramanujacharya]], [[Jainism]], once the major religion of southern India, declined. ===Buddhism=== But when Ashoka embraced [[Buddhism]], following the [[Kalinga War]], he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the ''Arthashastra'' on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son [[Mahinda]] and daughter [[Sanghamitta]] to [[Sri Lanka]], whose king [[Tissa]] was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to [[West Asia]], [[Greece]] and [[South East Asia]], and commissioned the construction of monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India i.e. [[Sanchi]] and [[Mahabodhi Temple]], and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in [[Afghanistan]],[[Thailand]] and north Asian countries. Ashoka helped convene the [[Buddhist Councils|Third Buddhist Council]] of India and South Asia's Buddhist orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. ===Brahmanism=== While himself a Buddhist, Ashoka retained the membership of Brahmana priests and ministers in his court, and he maintained religious freedom and tolerance although the Buddhist faith grew in popularity with his patronage. Brahmanic society began embracing the philosophy of ''[[ahimsa]]'', and given the increased prosperity and improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also greatly discouraged was the [[caste system]] and orthodox discrimination, as [[Brahmanism]] began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings. Social freedom began expanding in an age of peace and prosperity. ==Architectural remains== {{main|Edicts of Ashoka}} Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of a [[hypostyle]] building with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found in [[Kumhrar]], 5 km from [[Patna]] Railway station, and is one of the very few site that has been connected to the rule of the Mauryas in that city. The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture.<ref>"L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p23</ref> The grottoes of [[Barabar Caves]], are another example of Mauryan architecture, especially the decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of the [[Ajivikas]].<ref>"L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p22</ref> The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the sub-continent. ==Natural history in the times of the Mauryas== The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of interest. The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of [[Seleucus]], [[Alexander]]'s governor of the Punjab. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. [[Kautilya]]'s ''[[Arthashastra]]'' contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the ''Protector of the Elephant Forests'':<ref name="IWH4">Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 7.</ref> {{quote|On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Superintendent should with the help of guards...protect the elephants whether along on the mountain, along a river, along lakes or in marshy tracts...They should kill anyone slaying an elephant.|[[Arthashastra]]}} The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers, for skins. Elsewhere the ''Protector of Animals'' also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle. The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or ''aranyaca'' to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.<ref name="IWH5">Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 8.</ref> When [[Ashoka]] embraced [[Buddhism]] in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:<ref name="IWH5"/> {{quote|Our king killed very few animals.|[[Edicts of Ashoka|Edict on Fifth Pillar]]}} However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.<ref name="IWH5"/> ==Contacts with the Hellenistic world== [[Image:MauryanStatuette2ndCenturyBCE.jpg|thumb|Mauryan Statuette, 2nd Century BCE.]] ===Foundation of the Empire=== Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. [[Plutarch]] reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with [[Alexander the Great]], probably around [[Taxila]] in the northwest: :"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-3<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0243&layout=&loc=62.1 Plutarch 62-3]</ref> ===Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE)=== Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been [[Eudemus (general)|Eudemus]], ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or [[Peithon, son of Agenor]], ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for [[Babylon]] in 316 BCE. :"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination" Justin XV.4.12-13<ref>"(Transitum deinde in Indiam fecit), quae post mortem Alexandri, ueluti ceruicibus iugo seruitutis excusso, praefectos eius occiderat. Auctor libertatis Sandrocottus fuerat, sed titulum libertatis post uictoriam in seruitutem uerterat ; 14 siquidem occupato regno populum quem ab externa dominatione uindicauerat ipse seruitio premebat." [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/trad15.html Justin XV.4.12-13]</ref> :"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19<ref> "Molienti deinde bellum aduersus praefectos Alexandri elephantus ferus infinitae magnitudinis ultro se obtulit et ueluti domita mansuetudine eum tergo excepit duxque belli et proeliator insignis fuit. Sic adquisito regno Sandrocottus ea tempestate, qua Seleucus futurae magnitudinis fundamenta iaciebat, Indiam possidebat." [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/trad15.html Justin XV.4.19]</ref> ===Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)=== [[Image:SeleucosCoin.jpg|thumb|120px|right|Silver coin of [[Seleucus I Nicator]], who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.]] [[Seleucus I Nicator]], the Macedonian [[satrap]] of the [[Asia]]n portion of Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus ([[Appian]], History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta: :"Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus". [[Appian]], History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55<ref name="livius.org">[http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/appian/appian_syriaca_11.html Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55]</ref> Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact, was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including southern [[Afghanistan]] and parts of [[Iran|Persia]]. Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in 301 BCE. ====Marital alliance==== It is generally thought that an alliance was made, and that a Greek [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] princess was bethrothed to the Maurya Dynasty.<ref name=Majumdar/><ref>W. W. Tarn (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita", ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' '''60''', p. 84-94.</ref><ref>Partha Sarathi Bose (2003). ''Alexander the Great's Art of Strategy''. Gotham Books. ISBN 1592400531.</ref> A matrimonial alliance was also agreed upon (called [[Epigamia]] in ancient sources, meaning either the recognition of marriage between trans-Indus inhabitants and Greeks, or a dynastic alliance): :"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship". [[Appian]], History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55<ref name="livius.org"/> The treaty on "[[Epigamia]]" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both. ====Exchange of ambassadors==== Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, [[Megasthenes]], to Chandragupta, and later [[Deimakos]] to his son [[Bindusara]], at the Mauryan court at [[Pataliputra]] (Modern [[Patna]] in [[Bihar state]]). Later [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], the ruler of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by [[Pliny the Elder]] as having sent an ambassador named [[Dionysius (ambassador)|Dionysius]] to the [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryan]] court.<ref> [http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+6.21 Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21]</ref> ====Exchange of presents==== Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various [[aphrodisiac]]s to Seleucus: :"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" [[Athenaeus of Naucratis]], "[[The deipnosophists]]" Book I, chapter 32<ref>[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature000701860036&isize=M&pview=hide Ath. Deip. I.32]</ref> His son [[Bindusara]] 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged present with [[Antiochus I]]: :"But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as [[Aristophanes]] says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to [[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochus]], entreating him (it is [[Hegesander]] who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a [[sophist]]; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece" [[Athenaeus]], "[[Deipnosophistae]]" XIV.67<ref>[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=goto&id=Literature.AthV3&isize=M&page=1044 Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67]</ref> ===Greek populations in India=== Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule. In his [[Edicts of Ashoka]], set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek populations within his realm converted to Buddhism: :"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the [[Kambojas]], the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the [[Andhra]]s and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in [[Dharma]]". [[Edicts of Ashoka|Rock Edict Nb13]] (S. Dhammika). [[Image:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|right|Bilingual edict ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by king Ashoka, from [[Kandahar]]. [[Kabul]] Museum. (Click image for translation).]] Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered in [[Kandahar]]. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word [[Eusebeia]] ("[[Piety]]") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "[[Dharma]]" of his other Edicts written in [[Prakrit]]: :"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (''εὐσέβεια'', [[Eusebeia]]) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily". (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli [http://www.afghanan.net/afghanistan/mauryans.htm]) ===Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 BCE)=== [[Image:Asokanpillar.jpg|thumb|200px|Front view of the single lion capital in [[Vaishali]].]] Also, in the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain: :"The conquest by [[Dharma]] has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred [[yojana]]s (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochos]] rules, beyond there where the four kings named [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus|Ptolemy]], [[Antigonus Gonatas|Antigonos]], [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] and [[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander]] rule, likewise in the south among the [[Chola]]s, the [[Pandya]]s, and as far as [[Tamraparni]] ([[Sri Lanka]])." ([[Edicts of Ashoka]], 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika). Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of [[herbal medicine]], for men and animals, in their territories: :"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the [[Chola]]s, the [[Pandya]]s, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as [[Tamraparni]] and where the Greek king [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochos]] rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals". [[Edicts of Ashoka|2nd Rock Edict]] The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as [[Dharmaraksita]], are described in [[Pāli|Pali]] sources as leading Greek ("[[Yona]]") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the [[Mahavamsa]], XII<ref>Full text of the Mahavamsa [http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Click chapter XII]</ref>). ===Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)=== [[Sophagasenus]] was an Indian [[Mauryan]] ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena in [[Prakrit]]. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes{{Fact|date=June 2007}}, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of [[Ashoka]], or [[Kunala]], the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the [[Hindu Kush]], possibly in [[Gandhara]]. [[Antiochos III]], the [[Seleucid]] king, after having made peace with [[Euthydemus]] in [[Bactria]], went to India in 206 BC and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there: :"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him". [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.39 Polybius 11.39] ==Decline== Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. [[Brhadrata]], the last ruler of the [[Mauryan dynasty]], held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor [[Ashoka]], although he still upheld the Buddhist faith. ===Sunga coup (185 BCE)=== [[Brihadrata]] was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the commander-in-chief of his guard, the [[Brahmin]] general [[Pusyamitra Sunga]], who then took over the throne and established the [[Sunga dynasty]]. Buddhist records such as the [[Asokavadana]] write that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution for [[Buddhists]],<ref>According to the [[Ashokavadana]]</ref> and a resurgence of [[Hinduism]]. According to [[Sir John Marshall]],<ref>Sir John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN 8185204322, pg.38</ref> Pusyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as [[Etienne Lamotte]]<ref>E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958)</ref> and[[Romila Thapar]],<ref>Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200</ref> among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated. ===Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)=== {{main|Indo-Greek kingdom}} The fall of the Mauryas left the [[Khyber Pass]] unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The [[Greco-Bactrian]] king, [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]], capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings [[Menander I|Menander]] became a famous figure of Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of [[Sialkot]]. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the [[Sunga]]s, [[Satavahana]]s, and [[Kalinga (India)|Kalingas]] are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed [[Indo-Scythians]], brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of [[Mathura]], and Gujarat. ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== * Robert Morkot, ''The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece'' [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140513353 ISBN 0140513353] * [[Chanakya]], ''Arthashastra'' [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140446036 ISBN 0140446036] * J.F.C. Fuller, ''The Generalship of Alexander the Great'' [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0306813300 ISBN 0306813300] ==External links== * [http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=mauryan_empire The Mauryan Empire] at [[All Empires]] * [http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html Livius.org: Maurya dynasty] * [http://www.indianchild.com/mauryan_empire.htm Mauryan Empire of India] * [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/ancient/maurya.htm Extent of the Empire] * [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9051518 The Mauryan Empire from Britannica] * [http://www.buddhistcouncil.org/Asoka.htm Ashoka and Buddhism] * [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html Ashoka's Edicts] {{Empires}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Inca mythology 2009-07-14T16:49:48Z 2009-07-14T16:49:48 2009-07-14T16:49:48Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>'''Inca mythology''' includes a number of stories and legends that are mythological and helps to explain or symbolizes Inca beliefs. All [[Christian]] [[priest]]s that followed the [[Spanish conquest of Peru]] by [[Francisco Pizarro]] burned the records of the [[Inca]] culture. There is currently a theory put forward by [[Gary Urton]] that the [[Quipus]] represented a [[Binary numeral system|binary]] system capable of recording [[phonological]] or [[logographic]] [[data]]. All information for what is known is based on what was recorded by priests, from the [[iconography]] on Incan pottery and architecture, and the myths and legends which survived amongst the [[native peoples]]. == Inca foundation legends == [[Manco Capac]] was the legendary founder of the Inca Dynasty in Peru and the Cuzco Dynasty at Cuzco. The legends and history surrounding this mythical figure are very jumbled, especially those concerning his rule at Cuzco and his birth/rising. In one legend, he was the son of [[Inca Viracocha|Tici Viracocha]]. In another, he was brought up from the depths of [[Lake Titicaca]] by the sun god [[Inti]]. However, commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Inca Viracocha, which is possibly an explanation for the need for three foundation legends rather than just the first. There were also many myths about Manco Capac and his coming to power. In one myth, [[Manco Capac]] and his brother [[Pacha Kamaq]] were sons of the sun god [[Inti]]. Manco Capac, himself, was worshiped'' as a fire and sun'' god. According to this Inti legend, Manco Capac and his siblings were sent up to the earth by the sun god and emerged from the cave of Puma Orco at [[Pacaritambo]] carrying a golden staff called ‘[[tapac-yauri]]’. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth to honor the sun god Inti, their father. During the journey, one of Manco’s brothers (Ayar Cachi) was tricked into returning to Puma Orco and sealed inside, or alternatively was turned to ice, because his reckless and cruel behavior angered the tribes that they were attempting to rule. (''[[huaca]]''). In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, the siblings emerged from the waters of [[Lake Titicaca]]. Since this was a later origin myth than that of Pacaritambo it may have been created as a ploy to bring the powerful Aymara tribes into the fold of the Tawantinsuyo. In the Inca Virachocha legend, Manco Capac was the son of [[Viracocha|Inca Viracocha]] of [[Pacari-Tampu]], today known as [[Pacaritambo]], which is 25 km (16 mi) south of Cuzco. He and his brothers (''[[Ayar Auca]]'', ''[[Ayar Cachi]]'', and ''[[Ayar Uchu]]''); and sisters ([[Mama Ocllo]], ''[[Mama Huaco]]'', ''[[Mama Raua]]'', and ''[[Mama Cura]]'') lived near [[Cusco|Cuzco]] at Paccari-Tampu, and uniting their people and the ten [[ayllu]] they encountered in their travels to conquer the tribes of the Cuzco Valley. This legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Capac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to some versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them, and then became Cuzco. == Deities == Like the [[Roman Empire|Romans]], the Inca permitted the cultures they integrated into their empire to keep their individual religions. Below are some of the various gods worshiped by the peoples of the Incan empire, many of which have overlapping responsibilities and domains. Unless otherwise noted, it can safely be assumed these were worshipped by different [[ayllu]]s or worshipped in particular former states. *''Apo'' or [[Apu (god)|Apu]] was a god or spirit of [[mountain]]s. All of the important mountains have their own Apu, and some of them receive sacrifices to bring out certain aspects of their being. Some rocks and caves also are credited as having their own apu. *''[[Apocatequil]]'' (aka ''Apotequil'') was the god of [[lightning]].the empire at this time was named hheu hdah *''Ataguchu'' was a god who assisted in [[creation myth]] *''[[Catequil (god)|Catequil]]'' was a god of thunder and lightning *''[[Cavillace]]'' was a virgin goddess who ate a fruit, which was actually the sperm of [[Coniraya]], the moon god. When she gave birth to a son, she demanded that the father step forward. No one did, so she put the baby on the ground and it crawled towards Coniraya. She was ashamed because of Coniraya's low stature among the gods, and ran to the coast of Peru, where she changed herself and her son into rocks. *''Chasca'' was the goddess of [[dawn]] and [[twilight]], and [[Venus]]. She protected [[virgin]] girls. *''Chasca Coyllur'' was the goddess of flowers and young maidens. *'' Kuka Mama'' or ''Mama Kuka'' (in quechua: Mother coca) was a goddess of health and joy. She was originally a promiscuous woman who was cut in half by her many lovers. Her body grew into the first coca plant, the leaves of which men were only allowed to chew (to bring health and happiness) after having given a woman an orgasm. *''Coniraya'' was the [[deity]] of the [[lunar deity|moon]] who fashioned his sperm into a fruit, which ''Cavillaca'' then ate. When she gave birth to a son, she demanded that the father step forward. No one did, so she put the baby on the ground and it crawled towards Coniraya. She was ashamed because of Coniraya's low stature among the gods, and ran to the coast of [[Peru]], where she changed herself and her son into rock [[huacas]]. *''Copacati'' was a lake goddess. *''Ekkeko'' was a god of the [[hearth]] and [[wealth]]. The ancients made [[doll]]s that represented him and placed a miniature version of their desires onto the doll; this was believed to caused the user to receive what he desired. *''Illapa'' ("[[thunder]] and [[lightning]]"; aka ''Apu Illapu'', Ilyap'a, Katoylla) was a very popular [[weather]] god. His holiday was on [[July 25]]. He was said to keep the [[Milky Way]] in a [[Jug (container)|jug]] and use it to create [[rain]]. He appeared as a man in shining clothes, carrying a [[club (weapon)]] and [[rock (geology)|stone]]s. He was formerly the main god of the ''[[Kingdom of Colla]]'' after which the ''Collasuyu'' province of the [[Inca empire]] was named. *''[[Inti]]'' was the [[sun]] god. Source of warmth and light and a protector of the people. Inti was considered the most important god. The Inca Emperors were believed to be the lineal descendants of the sun god. *''[[Kon (Inca mythology)|Kon]]'' was the god of [[rain]] and [[wind]] that came from the [[south]]. He was a son of Inti and Mama Quilla. *''Mama Allpa'' was a fertility goddess depicted with multiple breasts. *''[[Mama Cocha]]'' ("sea mother") was the sea and fish goddess, protectress of sailors and fishermen. In one legend she mothered [[Inti]] and Mama Quilla with [[Viracocha]]. *''[[Mama Pacha]]'' (aka ''Pachamama'') was the wife of Pachacamac and a [[dragoness]] [[fertility]] deity who presided over [[planting]] and [[harvesting]]. She caused [[earthquakes]]. *''[[Mama Quilla]]'' ("mother moon" or "[[gold]]en mother") was a marriage, festival and [[moon goddess]] and daughter of [[Viracocha]] and ''Mama Cocha'', as well as wife and sister of [[Inti]]. She was the mother of [[Manco Capac]], ''Pachacamac'', ''Kon'' and ''Mama Ocllo''. *''[[Mama Zara]]'' ("grain mother", aka Zaramama) was the goddess of grain. She was associated with [[maize]] that grew in multiples or were similarly strange. These strange plants were sometimes dressed as dolls of Mama Zara. She was also associated with [[willow]] trees. *''[[Pacha Camac]]'' ("Earth-maker") was a [[chthonic]] [[creator god]], earlier worshiped by the [[Ichma]] but later adopted into the creation myth of the Inca. *''[[Pariacaca]]'' was a god of [[water]] in pre-Inca mythology that was adopted by the Inca. He was a god of rainstorms and a creator-god. He was born a [[falcon]] but later became human. *''[[Paricia]]'' was a god who sent a [[flood]] to kill humans who did not respect him adequately. Possibly another name for Pachacamac. *''[[Supay]]'' was both the god of [[death]] and ruler of the ''[[Uca Pacha]]'' as well as a race of [[demon]]s. *''[[Urcaguary]]'' was the god of [[metal]]s, [[Gemstone|jewel]]s and other underground items of great value. *''[[Urcuchillay]]'' was a deity that watched over animals. *''[[Viracocha]]'' was the god of everything. in the beginning he was the main god, but when Pachacutec became Inca, he changed this god importance pointing that it was Inti who allowed him to defeated the chancas (Incas' main enemies at that time) ==Important Facts== *[[Mama Ocllo]] was the sister and wife of [[Manco Capac]]. She was thought to have taught the Inca the art of spinning. *''[[Mamaconas]]'' were similar to nuns and lived in temple sanctuaries. They dedicated their lives to [[Inti]], and served the Inca and priests. Young girls of the nobility or of exceptional beauty were trained for four years as ''acllas'' and then had the option of becoming mamaconas or marrying Inca nobles. They are comparable to the Roman [[Vestal Virgins]], though Inca society did not value virginity as a virtue the way Western societies have done throughout history. *In one legend, ''[[Unu Pachakuti]]'' was a great flood sent by Virachocha to destroy the giants that built [[Tiwanaku]]. *A [[Huaca]] was a sacred object such as a mountain or a mummy. == Important Places == *''[[Uku Pacha]]'' ("the lower world") was the [[underworld]] (similar to [[Hell]] or [[Hades]]), located in the center of [[Earth]]. *''[[Kay Pacha]]'' was the world in which we live. *''[[Hanan Pacha]]'' ("higher world") was the Heavenly underworld. Only [[righteous]] people could enter it (much like [[Heaven]]), crossing a bridge made of hair. == Inca Symbols == *''[[Chakana]]'' (or Inca Cross, Chakana) is the three-stepped cross equivalent symbolic of what is known in other mythologies as the Tree of Life, World Tree and so on. Through a central axis a shaman journeyed in trance to the lower plane or Underworld and the higher levels inhabited by the superior gods to enquire into the causes of misfortune on the Earth plane. The snake, puma, and condor are totemic representatives of the three levels..</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Giza pyramid complex 2009-07-05T19:28:26Z 2009-07-05T19:28:26 2009-07-05T19:28:26Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>The '''Giza Necropolis''' stands on the [[Giza Plateau]], on the outskirts of [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]. This complex of ancient monuments includes the three [[pyramid]]s known as the Great Pyramids, along with the massive sculpture known as the [[Great Sphinx]]. It is located some 8&nbsp;km (5&nbsp;mi) inland into the [[desert]] from the old town of [[Giza]] on the [[Nile]], some 25&nbsp;km (15&nbsp;mi) southwest of Cairo city centre. One of the monuments, the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], is the only remaining monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. ==Description== The Great Pyramids consist of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] (known as the ''Great Pyramid'' and the ''Pyramid of Cheops''), the somewhat smaller [[Khafre's Pyramid|Pyramid of Khafre]] (or Chephren) a few hundred meters to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized [[Menkaure's Pyramid|Pyramid of Menkaure]] (or&nbsp;Mykerinos) a few hundred meters further south-west. The [[Great Sphinx]] lies on the east side of the complex, facing east. Current consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways and valley pyramids. Also associated with these royal monuments are the tombs of high officials and much later burials and monuments (from the [[New Kingdom]] onwards), signifying the reverence to those buried in the necropolis. Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's Pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished [[limestone]] casing, with Khafre's Pyramid retaining a prominent display of casing stones at its apex, while Khufu's Pyramid maintains a more limited collection at its base. Khafre's Pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu Pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction &ndash; it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. The most active phase of construction here was in the [[25th century BC]]. It was popularised in [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] times when the Great Pyramid was listed by [[Antipater of Sidon]] as one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]. Today it is the only one of the ancient Wonders still in existence. Due largely to 19th-century images, the pyramids of Giza are generally thought of by foreigners as lying in a remote, desert location, even though they are located in what is now part of the most populous city in Africa [http://www.delange.org/Giza_Pyramids_Sphinx/GC.jpg]. In fact, urban development reaches right up to the perimeter of the antiquities site. The ancient sites in the [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] area, including those at Giza, together with those at [[Saqqara]], [[Dahshur]], [[Abu Ruwaysh]], and [[Abusir]], were collectively declared a [[World Heritage Site]] in 1979 [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/86]. The Giza pyramids have been recorded in the Giza Plateau Mapping Project run by [[Ancient Egypt Research Associates]], directed by Dr. [[Mark Lehner]]. In addition, Lehner's team undertook radiocarbon dating on material recovered from the exterior of the Great Pyramid. ==Construction== Researchers have long been impressed with the precision with which the pyramids of this complex were created. The base of the [[Great Pyramid]] forms a nearly perfect square, with only a 19-cm (about 7.50-in) difference between its longest and shortest sides, out of a total length of about 230 m (756 ft). This huge square is also almost exactly level. When newly completed, the Great Pyramid rose 146.7 m (481.4 ft)—nearly 50 stories high. The pyramid’s core probably includes a hill of unexcavated rubble, making it impossible to determine its exact number of blocks. Researchers estimate that 2.3 million blocks were used to build the Great Pyramid, with an average weight of about 2.5 metric tons per block. The largest block weighs as much as 15 metric tons. There have been varying theories regarding the construction techniques. Most construction theories are based on the idea that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. The disagreements center on the method by which the stones were conveyed and placed. A recent theory proposes that the building blocks were manufactured in-place from a kind of "limestone concrete". The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids was most likely accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers—bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others—were also needed for the project, so that, for instance a total of as many as 35,000 men and women were involved in the Great Pyramid. Many archaeologists and engineers now believe that the pyramid builders were not slaves, as was previously thought, but paid laborers who took great pride in their task. Most were probably farmers, contracted to work for a limited period. Specialists, who were permanently employed by the king, filled the positions that required the most skill—architects, masons, metalworkers, and carpenters. In building the pyramids, the architects developed their techniques over time. They would select a site on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the pyramids in horizontal levels, one on top of the other. For the Great Pyramid, most of the stone for the interior was quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the Nile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) people took the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo. To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction the outer surface of the stone was left unfinished; excess stone was removed later. ==Astronomy== The sides of all three of the Giza pyramids were astronomically oriented to be north-south and east-west within a small fraction of a degree. Among recent attempts to explain such a clearly deliberate pattern are those of S. Haack, [[Otto Neugebauer|O. Neugebauer]], K. Spence, [[Dennis Rawlins|D. Rawlins]], K. Pickering, and J. Belmonte. The arrangement of the pyramids is a disputed representation of the Orion constellation in the [[Orion Correlation Theory]]. ==See also== [[Image:PyramidsofGiza at night.jpg|thumb|The Giza pyramid complex at night]] *[[Christopher Dunn (author)]] *[[Egyptian pyramids]] *[[List of Egypt-related topics]] *[[List of Egyptian pyramids]] *[[List of megalithic sites]] includes section on calculating weight of megaliths *[[List of archaeoastronomical sites sorted by country]] *[[Joseph P. Farrell]]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Valley of the Queens 2009-07-05T17:41:33Z 2009-07-05T17:41:33 2009-07-05T17:41:33Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>[[Image:Valley of the Queens by Zureks.jpg|250px|right|thumb|General view of the Valley of the Queens]] The Valley of the Queens, is a place in [[Egypt]] where wives of [[Pharaoh]]s were buried in ancient times. In ancient times, it was known as '''Ta-Set-Neferu''', meaning –‘the place of the Children of the Pharaoh’, because along with the Queens of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt| 18th]], [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt| 19th]] and [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt| 20th dynasties]] (1550–1070 BCE) many princes and princesses were also buried with various members of the nobility. The tombs of these individuals were maintained by mortuary priests who performed daily rituals and provided offerings and prayers for the deceased nobility. The valley is located near the better known [[Valley of the Kings]], on the west bank of the [[Nile]] across from [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] (modern [[Luxor]]) . This barren area in the western hills was chosen due to its relative isolation and proximity to the capital. The kings of the 18th dynasty, instead of the traditional building of pyramids as burial chambers (perhaps because of their vulnerability to [[grave robbing|tomb robbers]]), now chose to be buried in rock-cut tombs. This [[necropolis]] is said to hold more than seventy tombs, many of which are stylish and lavishly decorated. An example of this is the resting place carved out of the rock for Queen [[Nefertari]] (1290–1224 BCE) of the 19th Dynasty. The [[polychrome]] reliefs in her tomb are still intact.  ==Other Burials== Fragments of burial equipments were found for several additional members of the royal family. No known tombs exist for these individuals but the existence of the burial equipment suggests that these people may have once been buried in the Valley of the Queens as well.<ref>Dodson A. and Hilton D. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, London 2004</ref> * King's Wife Henut. Mid 18th Dynasty. Her name was enclosed in a cartouche on canopic fragments. * Prince [[Menkheperre (prince)|Menkheperre]], Son of Tuthmosis III and Merytre Hatshepsut. Canopic fragments were found. * King's Great Wife [[Nebetnehat]]. Mid 18th Dynasty. Her name was enclosed in a cartouche on canopic fragments. * King's Daughter Ti. Mid 18th Dynasty. Canopic fragments were found.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Bast goddess 2009-07-05T16:43:12Z 2009-07-05T16:43:12 2009-07-05T16:43:12Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>[[Image:Egypte louvre 028.jpg|thumb|150px|upright|Bastet as a lioness]] In Egyptian mythology, '''Bast''' (also spelled '''Ubasti''', '''Baset''', and later '''Bastet''') is an ancient [[solar]] and [[war]] [[goddess]], worshipped at least since the [[Second dynasty of Egypt|Second Dynasty]]. In the late dynasties, the priests of Amun began to call her '''Bastet''', a repetitive and diminutive form after her role in the pantheon became diminished as [[Sekhmet]], a similar lioness war deity, became more dominant in the unified culture of Lower and Upper Egypt. In the Middle Kingdom, the cat appeared as Bastet’s sacred animal and after the New Kingdom she was depicted with a woman with a cat’s head carrying a sacred rattle and a box or basket. Bast or Bastet was the cat goddess and local deity of the town of [[Bubastis]] ('''Per-Bast''' in Egyptian), where her cult was centered. Bubastis was named after her. Originally she was viewed as the protector goddess of [[Lower Egypt]], and consequently depicted as a fierce lioness. Indeed, her name means ''(female) devourer''. As protector, she was seen as defender of the [[pharaoh]], and consequently of the later chief male deity, [[Ra]], who was a solar deity also, gaining her the titles ''Lady of Flame'' and ''[[Eye of Horus|Eye of Ra]]''. The goddess Bast was sometimes depicted holding a ceremonial [[sistrum]] in one hand and an [[aegis]] in the other – the aegis usually resembling a collar or gorget embellished with a [[lion]]ess head. Bast was a goddess of the [[sun]] throughout most of Ancient Egyptian history, but later when she was changed into a cat goddess rather than a lion, she was changed to a goddess of the [[moon]] by [[Greeks]] occupying Ancient Egypt toward the end of its civilization. In Greek mythology, Bast is also known as ''Aelurus''. == History and connection to other gods == Due to the threat to the food supply that could be caused by simple [[vermin]] such as mice and rats, and their ability to fight and kill [[snake]]s, especially [[cobra]]s, [[Cats in ancient Egypt|cats in Egypt]] were revered highly, sometimes being given golden jewellery to wear and were allowed to eat from the same plates as their owners. Consequently, later as the main cat (rather than lioness) deity, Bastet was strongly revered as the patron of cats, and thus it was in the temple at Per-Bast that cats were buried and [[Mummy|mummified]]. When the owner died they would put the owner next to the mummified cat. More than 300,000 mummified cats were discovered when Bast's temple at Per-Bast was [[excavation (archaeology)|excavated]]. Herodotus writes that when a cat in the family dies, Egyptians shaved their eyebrows and took the body to Bubastis to be embalmedAs a cat or lioness war goddess, and protector of the lands, when, during the [[New Kingdom]], the fierce lion god [[Maahes]] of Nubia became part of Egyptian mythology, she was identified, in the Lower Kingdom, as his mother. This paralleled the identification of the fierce lioness war goddess [[Sekhmet]], as his mother in the [[Upper Egypt|Upper Kingdom]]. As divine mother, and more especially as protector, for Lower Egypt, she became strongly associated with [[Wadjet]], the patron goddess of Lower Egypt, eventually becoming '''Wadjet-Bast''', paralleling the similar pair of patron ([[Nekhbet]]) and lioness protector ([[Sekhmet]]) for Upper Egypt. Bastet was the daughter of Amun Ra.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Roman economy 2009-07-02T18:10:50Z 2009-07-02T18:10:50 2009-07-02T18:10:50Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Numismatics}} The '''Roman currency''' during most of the [[Roman Republic]] and the western half of the [[Roman Empire]] consisted of coins including the [[aureus]] (gold), the [[denarius]] (silver), the [[sestertius]] (bronze), the [[dupondius]] (bronze), and the [[As (coin)|as]] (copper). These were used from the middle of the third century BC until the middle of the third century A.D. They were still accepted as payment in Greek influenced territories, even though these regions issued their own base coinage and some silver in other [[Denomination (currency)|denomination]]s, either called [[Greek Imperial]] or [[Roman provincial coins]]. During the third century, the denarius was replaced by the double denarius, now usually known as the [[antoninianus]] or radiate, which was then itself replaced during the monetary reform of [[Diocletian]] which created denominations such as the [[argenteus]] (silver) and the [[follis]] (silvered bronze). After the reforms Roman coinage consisted mainly of the gold [[solidus (coin)|solidus]] and small bronze denominations. This trend continued to the end of the Empire in the West. See also [[Byzantine currency]]. ==Authority to mint coins== [[Image:Maximinus denarius.jpg|left|frame|A [[denarius]] by [[Maximinus]].]] Unlike most modern coins, Roman coins had [[Intrinsic value (numismatics)|intrinsic]] value. While they contained precious metals, the value of a coin was higher than its precious metal content, so they were not [[bullion]]. Estimates of the value of the [[denarius]] range from 1.6 to 2.85 times its metal content, thought to equal the purchasing power of 10 modern British Pound Sterling (US$13) at the beginning of the Roman Empire to around 18 Pound Sterling (US$25) by its end (comparing bread, wine and meat prices) and, over the same period, around one to three days' pay for a Legionnaire.<ref>[http://dougsmith.ancients.info/worth.html Buying Power of Roman Coins]</ref> The majority of the written information about coins that survives is in the form of [[papyrus|papyri]] preserved in Egypt’s dry climate. The coinage system that existed in [[Egypt]] till the time of Diocletian’s monetary reform was a closed system based upon the heavily debased [[tetradrachm]]. Although the value of these tetradrachmas can be reckoned as being equivalent in value to the denarius, their precious metal content was always much lower. Clearly, not all coins that circulated contained precious metals, as the value of these coins was too great to be convenient for everyday purchases. A dichotomy existed between the coins with an intrinsic value and those with only a token value. This is reflected in the infrequent and inadequate production of bronze coinage during the Republic, where from the time of [[Sulla]] till the time of [[Augustus]] no bronze coins were minted at all; even during the periods when bronze coins were produced, their workmanship was sometimes very crude and of low quality. Later, during the [[Roman Empire]], there was a division in the authority of minting coins of particular metals. While numerous local authorities were allowed to mint bronze coins, no local authority was authorized to strike silver coins. On the authority to mint coins [[Dio Cassius]] writes, "None of the cities should be allowed to have its own separate coinage or a system of weights and measures; they should all be required to use ours." Only Rome itself struck precious metal coinage, and the mint was centralized in the city of Rome during the Republic and during the early centuries of the Empire. Some Eastern provinces struck coins in silver, but these coins were local denominations that were intended to circulate and to fill only a local need. The issue of bronze coins can be interpreted to be of little value, and of little importance to the central government of Rome, since expenditures of the state were large and could be more easily paid with coins of high value. It is known that during the first century AD an [[As (coin)|as]] could only buy a pound of bread or a litre of cheap [[wine]] (or according to [[Pompeii]]an graffiti, the services of a cheap [[prostitute]]). The importance and the need for smaller denominations for the population of Rome was probably high. Evidence of this can be seen in the numerous imitations of imperial [[Claudius|Claudian]] bronzes that, although probably not authorized by Rome, appear to have been tolerated and were struck in large numbers. Since the government required coins mainly as a means to pay its army and officials, it had little impetus or desire to fulfill the need for bronze coins. ==The role of coins== ===Republican iconography=== Another role that coins played in Roman society, although secondary to their economic role within [[Roman commerce]], was their ability to convey a meaning or relate an idea via their imagery and inscriptions. The interpretation of imagery featured on coins is clearly subjective, and has drawn criticism for over-interpreting minor details. The first images to appear on coins during the Republic were rather limited in diversity and generally represented the entire Roman state. The job of deciding what imagery to feature belonged to the committee of [[moneyer|tresviri monetales]] ('trio of money men'), young statesmen who aspired to be senators. The position of tresviri monetales (moneyers) was created in 289 BC and lasted until at least the middle of the third century AD. Although initially there were only three, the number was increased by [[Julius Caesar]] to four during the end of the Republic. Imagery on the earliest denarii usually consisted of the bust of [[Roma (mythology)|Roma]] on the obverse, and a deity driving a biga or quadriga on the reverse. There was no mention of the moneyer’s name, although occasionally coins featured control marks such as small symbols, letters, or monograms which might have been used to indicate who was responsible for a particular coin. Eventually, monograms and other symbols were replaced with abbreviated forms of the moneyer’s name. After the addition of their names, moneyers began to use the coins to display images that relate of their family history. An example of this are the coins of Sextus Pompeius Fostulus, which feature his traditional ancestor, Fostulus, watching [[Romulus and Remus]] being suckled by a she-wolf. While not every coin issued featured references to an ancestor of a moneyer, the number of references increased and the depictions became more and more of current interest. Self-promoting imagery on coins was part of the increasing competition amongst the ruling class in the Roman Republic. The [[Lex Gabinia]], which introduced secret ballots in elections in order to reduce electoral corruption, is indicative of the degree of competition amongst the upper class of this time period. The imagery on Republican coins wasn’t meant to influence the populace; the messages were designed for and by the elite. ===Imperial iconography=== The imagery on coins took an important step when [[Julius Caesar]] issued coins bearing his own portrait. While moneyers had earlier issued coins with portraits of ancestors, Caesar’s was the first Roman coinage to feature the portrait of a living individual. The tradition of putting one’s own portrait on coinage was not abandoned following the assassination of Caesar, although the [[Roman Emperor|imperators]] from time to time also produced coins featuring the traditional deities and personifications found on earlier coins. The image of the Roman emperor took on a special importance in the centuries that followed, because during the empire, the emperor embodied the state and its policies. The names of moneyers continued to appear upon the coins until the middle of [[Augustus]]’ reign. Although the duty of moneyers during the Empire is not known, since the position was not abolished, it is believed that they still had some influence over the imagery of the coins. The main focus of the imagery during the empire was on the portrait of the emperor. Coins were an important means of disseminating this image throughout the empire. Coins often attempted to make the emperor appear god-like through associating the emperor with attributes normally seen in divinities, or emphasizing the special relationship between the emperor and a particular deity by producing a preponderance of coins depicting that deity. During his campaign against Pompey, Caesar issued a variety of types that featured images of either [[Venus (goddess)|Venus]] or [[Aeneas]], attempting to associate himself with his divine ancestors. An example of an emperor who went to an extreme in proclaiming divine status was [[Commodus]]. In 192, he issued a series of coins depicting his bust clad in a lion-skin (the usual depiction of Hercules) on the obverse, and an inscription proclaiming that he was the Roman incarnation of Hercules on the reverse. Although Commodus was excessive in his depiction of his image, this extreme case is indicative of the objective of many emperors in the exploitation of their portraits. While the emperor is by far the most frequent portrait on the obverse of coins, heirs apparent, predecessors, and other family members, such as empresses, were also featured. To aid succession, the legitimacy of an heir was affirmed by producing coins for that successor. This was done from the time of Augustus till the end of the empire. Featuring the portrait of an individual on a coin, which became legal in 44 BC, caused the coin to embody the attributes of the individual portrayed. Dio wrote that following the death of [[Caligula]] the Senate demonetized his coinage, and ordered that they be melted. Regardless of whether or not this actually occurred, it demonstrates the importance and meaning that was attached to the imagery on a coin. The philosopher [[Epictetus]] jokingly wrote: "Whose image does this [[sestertius]] carry? Trajan’s? Give it to me. Nero’s? Throw it away, it is unacceptable, it is rotten." Although the writer did not seriously expect people to get rid of their coins, this quotation demonstrates that the Romans attached a moral value to the images on their coins. Unlike the obverse, which during the imperial period almost always featured a portrait, the reverse was far more varied in its depiction. During the late Republic there were often political messages to the imagery, especially during the periods of civil war. However, by the middle of the Empire, although there were types that made important statements, and some that were overtly political or propagandistic in nature, the majority of the types were stock images of personifications or deities. While some images can be related to the policy or actions of a particular emperor, many of the choices seem arbitrary and the personifications and deities were so prosaic that their names were often omitted, as they were readily recognizable by their appearance and attributes alone. It can be argued that within this backdrop of mostly indistinguishable types, exceptions would be far more pronounced. Atypical reverses are usually seen during and after periods of war, at which time emperors make various claims of liberation, subjugation, and pacification. Some of these reverse images can clearly be classified as propaganda. An example struck by emperor [[Philip the Arab|Philip]] in 244 features a legend proclaiming the establishment of peace with [[Persian Empire|Persia]]; in truth, Rome had been forced to pay large sums in tribute to the Persians. Although it is difficult to make accurate generalizations about reverse imagery, as this was something that varied by emperor, some trends do exist. An example is reverse types of the military emperors during the second half of the third century, where virtually all of the types were the common and standard personifications and deities. A possible explanation for the lack of originality is that these emperors were attempting to present conservative images to establish their legitimacy, something that many of these emperors lacked. Although these emperors relied on traditional reverse types, their portraits often emphasized their authority through stern gazes{{Fact|date=September 2007}}, and even featured the bust of the emperor clad in armor. == Further history of Roman coins == [[Image:7antoninianii.jpg||thumbnail|left|400px|''Antoniniani'' Row 1: [[Elagabalus]] ([[silver]] 218-222), [[Trajan Decius]] (silver 249-251), [[Gallienus]] ([[billon]] 253-268 [[Asia Minor|Asian]] mint) Row 2: [[Gallienus]] ([[copper]] 253-268), [[Aurelian]] (silvered 270-275), [[barbarous radiate]] (copper), [[barbarous radiate]] (copper)]] The type of coins issued changed under the coinage reform of [[Diocletian]], the heavily debased [[antoninianus]] (double denarius) was replaced with a variety of new denominations, and a new range of imagery was introduced that attempted to convey different ideas. The new government set up by Diocletian was a tetrarchy, or rule by four, with each emperor receiving a separate territory to rule. The new imagery includes a large, stern portrait that is representative of the emperor. This image was not meant to show the actual portrait of a particular emperor, but was instead a caricature that embodied the power that the emperor possessed. The reverse type was equally universal, featuring the spirit (or genius) of the Romans. The introduction of a new type of government and a new system of coinage represents an attempt by Diocletian to return peace and security to Rome, after the previous century of constant warfare and uncertainty. Diocletian characterizes the emperor as an interchangeable authority figure by depicting him with a generalized image. He tries to emphasize unity amongst the Romans by featuring the spirit of Romans (Sutherland 254). The reverse types of coins of the late Empire emphasized general themes, and discontinued the more specific personifications depicted previously. The reverse types featured legends that proclaimed the glory of Rome, the glory of the army, victory against the "barbarians", the restoration of happy times, and the greatness of the emperor. These general types persisted even after the adoption of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. Muted Christian imagery, such as standards that featured Christograms (the chi-rho monogram for Jesus Christ’s name in Greek) were introduced, but with a few rare exceptions, there were no explicitly Christian themes. From the time of Constantine until the "end" of the Roman Empire, coins featured indistinguishable, idealized portraits and general proclamations of greatness. Although the denarius remained the backbone of the Roman economy from its introduction in 211 BC until it ceased to be normally minted in the middle of the third century, the purity and weight of the coin slowly, but inexorably decreased. The problem of debasement in the Roman economy appears to be pervasive, although the severity of the debasement often paralleled the strength or weakness of the Empire. While it is not clear why debasement was such a common occurrence for the Romans, it's believed that it was caused by several factors, including a lack of precious metals, inadequacies in state finances, and inflation. When introduced, the denarius contained nearly pure silver at a theoretical weight of approximately 4.5 [[gram]]s. The theoretical standard, although not usually met in practice, remained fairly stable throughout the Republic, with the notable exception of times of war. The large number of coins required to raise an army and pay for supplies often necessitated the debasement of the coinage. An example of this is the denarii that were struck by [[Mark Antony]] to pay his army during his battles against Octavian. These coins, slightly smaller in diameter than a normal denarius, were made of noticeably debased silver. The obverse features a galley and the name Antony, while the reverse features the name of the particular legion that each issue was intended for (it is interesting to note that hoard evidence shows that these coins remained in circulation over 200 years after they were minted, due to their lower silver content). The coinage of the Julio-Claudians remained stable at 4 grams of silver, until the debasement of Nero in 64, when the silver content was reduced to 3.8 grams, perhaps due to the cost of rebuilding the city after fire consumed a considerable portion of Rome. The denarius continued to decline slowly in purity, with a notable reduction instituted by [[Septimius Severus]]. This was followed by the introduction of a double denarius piece, differentiated from the denarius by the radiate crown worn by the emperor. The coin is commonly called the [[antoninianus]] by numismatists after the emperor Caracalla, who introduced the coin in early in 215. Although nominally valued at two denarii, the antoninianus never contained more than 1.6 times the amount of silver of the denarius. The profit of minting a coin valued at two denarii, but weighing only about one and a half times as much is obvious; the reaction to these coins by the public is unknown. As the number of antoniniani minted increased, the number of denarii minted decreased, until the denarius ceased to be minted in significant quantities by the middle of the third century. Again, coinage saw its greatest debasement during times of war and uncertainty. The second half of the third century was rife with this war and uncertainty, and the silver content of the antonianus fell to only 2%, losing almost an appearance of being silver. During this time the aureus remained slightly more stable, before it too became smaller and more base before Diocletian’s reform. The decline in the silver content to the point where coins contained virtually no silver at all was countered by the monetary reform of [[Aurelian]] in 274. The standard for silver in the antonianus was set at twenty parts copper to one part silver, and the coins were noticeably marked as containing that amount (XXI in Latin or KA in Greek). Despite the reform of Aurelian, silver content continued to decline, until the monetary reform of Diocletian. In addition to establishing the tetrarchy, Diocletian devised the following system of denominations: an aureus struck at the standard of 60 to the pound, a new silver coin struck at the old Neronian standard known as the [[argenteus]], and a new large bronze coin that contained two percent silver. Diocletian issued an [[Edict on Maximum Prices]] in 301, which attempted to establish the legal maximum prices that could be charged for goods and services. The attempt to establish maximum prices was an exercise in futility as maximum prices were impossible to enforce. The Edict was reckoned in terms of denarii, although no such coin had been struck for over 50 years (it is believed that the bronze ''folles'' was valued at 12.5 denarii). Like earlier reforms, this too eroded and was replaced by an uncertain coinage consisting mostly of gold and bronze. The exact relationship and denomination of the bronze issues of a variety of sizes is not known, and is believed to have fluctuated heavily on the market. The exact reason that Roman coinage sustained constant debasement is not known, but the most common theories involve inflation, trade with India, which drained silver from the Mediterranean world, and inadequacies in state finances. It is clear from papyri that the pay of the Roman soldier increased from 900 sestertii a year under Augustus to 2000 sestertii a year under Septimius Severus and the price of grain more than tripled indicating that fall in real wages and a moderate inflation occurred during this time.<ref>http://www.ancientcoins.biz/pages/economy/</ref> Another reason for debasement was lack of raw metal with which to produce coins. Italy itself contains no large or reliable mines for precious metals, therefore the precious metals for coinage had to be obtained elsewhere. The majority of the precious metals that Rome obtained during its period of expansion arrived in the form of war booty from defeated territories, and subsequent tribute and taxes by new-conquered lands. When Rome ceased to expand, the precious metals for coinage then came from newly mined silver, such as from [[Greece]] and [[Spain]], and from melting older coins. Without a constant influx of precious metals from an outside source, and with the expense of continual wars, it would seem reasonable that coins might be debased to increase the amount that the government could spend. A simpler possible explanation for the debasement of coinage is that it allowed the state to spend more than it had. By decreasing the amount of silver in their coins, Rome could produce more coins and "stretch" their budget. As time progressed the trade deficit of the west because of its buying of grain and other commodities led to a currency drainage in Rome. ==See also== *[[List of historical currencies]] *[[Roman Republic]] *[[Roman Republican coinage]] *[[Roman provincial coins]] *[[Moneyer#Roman Republican moneyers|Roman Republican moneyers]] *[[Spintria]] *[[Tessera#Commerce|Tessera]] ==Bibliographic References== {{refbegin}} *[[Henry Cohen (numismatist)|Cohen, Henry]], ''Description historiques des monnaies frappées sous l’Empire romain'', Paris, 1882, 8 vols. There exists [http://www.virtualcohen.com online version of this Cohen's catalogue] *Greene, Kevin. ''Archaeology of the Roman Economy''. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1986. *Suarez, Rasiel. ''The Encyclopedia of Roman Imperial Coins''. Dirty Old Books, 2005. *Van Meter, David. ''The Handbook of Roman Imperial Coins''. Laurion Press, 1990. *Howgego, Christopher. ''Ancient History from Coins''. London: Routledge, 1995. *Jones, A. H. M. ''The Roman Economy: Studies in Ancient Economic and Administrative History''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1974. *Reece, Richard. ''Roman Coins''. London: Benn, 1970. *Salmon, E. Togo. ''Roman Coins and Public Life under the Empire''. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1999. *Sutherland, C. H. V. ''Roman Coins''. New York: G. P. <ref> Also published by Barrie and Jenkins in [[London]] in 1974 with ISBN 0 214 66808 8 </ref> {{refend}} == External links == * [http://dougsmith.ancients.info/ Doug Smith's Site on Roman and Greek Coins] * [http://www.forumancientcoins.com/ Forvm Ancient Coins] Identification, counterfeit detection, articles and photo galleries * [http://www.lotn.org/~calkinsc/coins/rcrc/rcrc.html Reading and Cataloging Roman Imperial Coins] - a tutorial for beginners * [http://www.dirtyoldcoins.com/ Dirty Old Coins] * [http://www.wildwinds.com/ The WildWinds database] * [http://www.coinarchives.com CoinArchives.com: A large database of coins previously sold at auction - includes images and prices] * [http://home.blarg.net/~brad/coins.htm Brad's Introduction to Ancient Coins] * [http://rg.ancients.info/constantine/ House of Constantine Bronzes] * [http://monetaoro.unicatt.it/ Online numismatic exhibit: "This round gold is but the image of the rounder globe" (H.Melville). The charm of gold in ancient coinage] * [http://imperialcoins.com/newsletters/april08/ A Bi-Monthly Newsletter that focuses on ancient numismatics] * [http://celator.com/ A monthly journal (print) that focuses on ancient numismatics] * [http://www.asiaminorcoins.com/ Asia Minor Coins] History and index/photo gallery of ancient Greek and Roman coins from Asia Minor (Anatolia/Turkey)</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Roman commerce 2009-07-02T18:09:48Z 2009-07-02T18:09:48 2009-07-02T18:09:48Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>'''Roman [[trade]]''' was the engine that drove the economy of the late [[Roman Republic]] and the early [[Roman Empire]]. Fashions and trends in [[historiography]] and in popular culture have tended to neglect the economic basis of the empire in favor of the [[lingua franca]] of [[Latin]] and the exploits of the [[Roman legion]]s. The language and the legions were supported by trade while being at the same time part of its backbone. Romans were businessmen and the longevity of their empire was due to their commercial [[trade]]. Whereas in theory members of the [[Roman Senate]] and their families were prohibited from engaging in trade, the members of the [[Equestrian (Roman)|Equestrian]] order were involved in businesses, despite their upper class values that laid the emphasis on military pursuits and leisure activities. [[Plebeians]] and freedmen held shop or manned stalls at markets while vast quantities of [[slavery|slaves]] did most of the hard work. The slaves were themselves also the subject of commercial transactions. Their high proportion in society (compared to that in [[Classical Greece]]), and the reality of runaways, the [[Roman Servile Wars]] and minor uprisings, they gave a distinct flavor to Roman commerce. The intricate, complex, and extensive accounting of Roman trade was conducted with counting boards and the [[Roman abacus]]. The abacus, using [[Roman numerals]], was ideally suited to the counting of [[Roman currency]] and tallying of [[Ancient Roman weights and measures|Roman measures]]. == Negotiatores, Mercatores and Pedlars == The Romans knew two types of businessmen, the negotiatores and the mercatores. The negotiatores were in part bankers because they lent money on interest. They also bought and sold staples in bulk or did commerce in wholesale quantities of goods. In some instances the argentarii are considered as a subset of the negotiatores and in others as a group apart. The argentarii acted as agents in public or private auctions, kept deposits of money for individuals, cashed cheques (''prescriptio'') and served as moneychangers. They kept strict books, or tabulae, which were considered as legal proof by the courts. The argentarii sometimes did the same kind of work as the mensarii, who were public bankers appointed by the state. The mercatores were usually plebeians or freedmen. They were present in all the open-air markets or covered shops, manning stalls or hawking goods by the side of the road. They were also present near Roman military camps during campaigns, where they sold food and clothing to the soldiers and paid cash for any booty coming from military activities. There is some information on the economy of Roman Palestine from Jewish sources of around the 3rd century AD,. Itinerant pedlars (rochel) took spices and perfumes to the rural population (Safra p78). This suggests that the economic benefits of the Empire did reach, at least, the upper levels of the peasantry. *Ze'ev Safrai "The Economy of Roman Palestine", London 1994 == Commercial infrastructure == The [[Roman forum|Forum Cuppedinis]] in [[ancient Rome]] was a market which offered general [[good (accounting)|goods]]. At least four other large markets specialized in specific goods such as [[cattle]], [[wine]], [[fish]] and [[herbs]] and [[vegetables]], but the [[Roman forum]] drew the bulk of the traffic. All new cities, like [[Timgad]], were laid out according to an [[orthogonal]] [[grid plan]] which facilitated transportation and commerce. The cities were connected by good [[Roman road|roads]]. Navigable rivers were extensively used and some canals were dug but neither leave such clear archaeology as roads and consequently they tend to be underestimated. A major mechanism for the expansion of trade was peace. All settlements, especially the smaller ones, could be located in economically rational positions. Before, and after, the Roman Empire, hilltop defensive positions were preferred for small settlements and piracy made coastal settlement particularly hazardous for all but the largest cities. [[File:Neumagener Weinschiff.jpg|thumb|250px|River vessel carrying barrels, assumed to be wine]] By the 1st century, the provinces of the Roman Empire were trading huge volumes of commodities to one another by sea routes. There was an increasing tendency for specialization, particularly in manufacturing, agriculture and mining. Some provinces specialized in producing certain types of goods, such as grain in Egypt and North Africa and [[Ancient Rome and wine|wine]] and olive oil in Italy, Hispania and Greece. Our knowledge of the Roman economy is extremely patchy. The vast bulk of traded goods, being agricultural, normally leave no direct archaeology. Very exceptionally, as at [[Berenice]], there is evidence of long distance trade in pepper,almonds, hazelnuts, stone pine cones, walnuts, coconuts, apricots and peaches besides the more expected figs, raisins and dates (Cappers). The wine, olive oil and [[garum]] (fermented fish sauce) trades were exceptional in leaving amphorae behind. But what are we to make of a single reference to a trade from Syria to Rome of a stiff [[Quince cheese|quince jam]] or marmalade (Grant p129). === Land routes === Even before the republic, the [[Roman Kingdom]] was engaged in regular commerce using the river [[Tiber]]. Before the [[Punic Wars]] completely changed the nature of commerce in the Mediterranean, the Roman republic had important commercial exchanges with [[Carthage]]. It entered into several commercial and political agreements with its rival city in addition to engaging in simple retail trading. The Roman Empire traded with the [[China|Chinese]] over the [[Silk Road]]. === Sea routes === [[Maritime archeology]] and ancient [[manuscripts]] from [[classical antiquity]] show evidence of vast Roman commercial fleets. The most substantial remains from this commerce are the infrastructure remains of harbors, moles, warehouses and lighthouses at ports such as [[Civitavecchia]], [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]], [[Portus]], [[Leptis Magna]] and [[Caesarea Maritima]]. At Rome itself, [[Monte Testaccio]] is a tribute to the scale of this commerce. As with most [[Roman technology]], the Roman sea going commercial ships had no significant advances over Greek ships of the previous centuries, though the lead sheeting of hulls for protection seems to have been more common. The Romans used round hulled sailing ships. Continuous Mediterranean "police" protection over several centuries was one of the main factors of success of Roman commerce, given that [[Roman road]]s were designed more for feet or hooves than for wheels, and could not support the economical transport of goods over long distances. The Roman ships used would have been easy prey for pirates had it not been for the fleets of [[Liburnian]] galleys and [[trireme]]s of the Roman navy. [[File:Corbita BM GR1850.3-4.32.jpg|thumb|250px|small coaster]] Bulky low-valued commodities, like grain and construction materials were traded only by sea routes, since the cost of sea transportation was 60 times lower than land. Staple goods and commodities like [[cereals]] for making bread and [[papyrus]] scrolls for book production were imported from [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] to Italy in a continuous fashion. The trade over the [[Indian Ocean]] blossomed in the first and second century CE. The sailors made use of the [[monsoon]] to cross the ocean from the ports of [[Berenice (port)|Berenice]], Leulos Limen and [[Myos Hormos]] on the [[Red Sea]] coast of [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Roman Egypt]] to the ports of [[Muziris]] and Nelkynda in [[Malabar coast]]. The main trading partners in southern India were the [[Tamil people|Tamil dynasties]] of the [[Pandyas]], [[Cholas]] and [[Cheras]]. Many Roman artifacts have been found in India, for example at the archaeological site of [[Arikamedu]] near present day [[Pondicherry]]. Meticulous descriptions of the ports and items of trade around the Indian Ocean can be found in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]''. === Standard weights and measures === ''Main article [[Ancient Roman units of measurement]].'' A standard [[amphora]], the ''amphora capitolina'', was kept in the temple of Jupiter on the [[Capitoline Hill]] in Rome, so that others could be compared to it. The Roman system of measurement was built on the Greek system with Egyptian influences. Much of it was based on weight. The Roman units were accurate and well documented. Distances were measured, and systematically inscribed on stone by agents of the government. A fairly standard and fairly stable and abundant currency, at least up to circa 200 AD, did much to facilitate trade. (Egypt had its own currency in this period and some provincial cities also issued their own coins.) == Contacts with China and India == The Far East, like sub-Saharan Africa, was a mysterious land to the Romans. [[Alexander the Great]] had conquered as far as India, and the Roman god [[Dionysus#Childhood|Bacchus]] was also said to have journeyed there. === China === {{see also|Sino-Roman relations}} The [[Hou Hanshu]] (History of the Later Han [[China|Chinese]] dynasty) recounted the first of several [[Roman embassies to China]] sent out by a Roman Emperor, probably [[Marcus Aurelius]] judging by the arrival date of 166 ([[Antoninus Pius]] is another possibility, but he died in 161. The confusion arises because Marcus Aurelius took the names of his predecessor as additional names, as a mark of respect and so is referred to in Chinese history as "An Tun", i.e. "Antoninus"). The mission came from the South, and therefore probably by sea, entering China by the frontier of [[Jinan]] or [[Tonkin]]. It brought presents of [[rhinoceros]] horns, ivory, and [[tortoise shell]] which had probably been acquired in [[Southern Asia]]. The mission reached the Chinese capital of [[Luoyang]] in 166 and was met by [[Emperor Huan of Han China|Emperor Huan]] of the [[Han Dynasty]]. About the same time, and possibly through this embassy, the Chinese acquired a treatise of [[astronomy]] from [[Daqin]] (Rome). However, in the absence of any record of this on the Roman side of the [[silk road]], it may be that the "ambassadors" were in reality free traders acting independently of Aurelius. From the 3rd century we have a Chinese text, the Weilue, describing the products of the Roman Empire and the routes to it. [http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html#products] === India === ''Main article [[Roman trade with India]].'' There was an Indian in [[Augustus]]'s retinue [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/10.html#69.9 (Plut. Alex. 69.9)], and he received embassies from India [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/5*.html#31 (Res Gestae, 31)]; one who met him in Spain in 25 BC, and one at Samos in 20 BC. The trade over the [[Indian Ocean]] blossomed in the first and second century CE. The sailors made use of the [[monsoon]] to cross the ocean from the ports of [[Berenice (port)|Berenice]], Leulos Limen and [[Myos Hormos]] on the [[Red Sea]] coast of [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Roman Egypt]] to the ports of [[Muziris]] and Nelkynda in [[Malabar coast]] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/unearthingmysteries.shtml] and [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4970452.stm]. The main trading partners in southern India were the [[Tamil people|Tamil dynasties]] of the [[Pandyas]], [[Cholas]] and [[Cheras]]. Many Roman artifacts have been found in India, for example at the archaeological site of [[Arikamedu]] near present day [[Pondicherry]]. Meticulous descriptions of the ports and items of trade around the Indian Ocean can be found in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]''. The main articles of trade with India were spices such as pepper, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, sandal wood and gems such as pearls, rubies, diamonds, emeralds and ivory. In exchange the Romans traded silver and gold with India. [[Pomponius Mela]] ([http://ourworld-top.cs.com/latintexts/m305.htm Book III,Chapter 5]), copied by [[Pliny the Elder]], wrote that [[Caecilius Metellus|Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer]], [[proconsul]] in [[Gaul]], 59 BCE, got 'several Indians' (''Indi'') as a present from a [[Germanic king]]. The Indians were driven by a storm to the coasts of [[Germania]] (''in tempestatem ex Indicis aequoribus''): :''Metellus Celer recalls the following: when he was Proconsul in [[Gaul]], he was given people from India by the king of the [[Suebi|Sueves]]; upon asking why they were in this land, he learnt that they were caught in a storm away from India, that they became castaways, and finally landed on the coasts of Germany. They thus resisted the sea, but suffered from the cold for the rest of their travel, and that is the reason why they left.'' (Sueves is an [[textual criticism|emendation]] to the text.) It is unclear whether these castaways were people from [[India]] or Eastern Asia, since "Indians" designated all Asians, Indian and beyond, during Roman times. Pomponius is using these ''Indi'' as evidence for the [[Northeast Passage]] and the northward strait out of the [[Caspian Sea]] (which in Antiquity was usually thought to be open to [[Oceanus]] in the north). [[Edward Herbert Bunbury]] suggests that they were of [[Finnish people|Finnish]] origin. There are also some speculations that they may have been American Indians [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact|castaway across the Atlantic]]. Some confusion may be suspected in this passage since Metellus Celer died before taking up his proconsulship, thus leaving it free for [[Julius Caesar]]. == Commerce and Religion == [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], who was originally only the god of the mercatores and the grain trade{{Fact|date=March 2009}} eventually became the god of all who were involved in commercial activities. On the [[Mercuralia]] on May 14, a Roman merchant would do the proper rituals of devotion to Mercury and beseech the god to remove from him and from his belongings the guilt coming from all the cheating he had done to his customers and suppliers. == See also == *[[Roman currency]] *[[Roman finance]] *[[Roman glass]] == References == <references/> == External links == *[http://romans.etrusia.co.uk/amphora_trade_p1.php The Romano-British Amphora Trade to A.D. 43] An Overview *[http://sites.google.com/site/grecoindian/Home/Introduction/historic-trade-routes Historic Trade Routes] Greco-Indian trade with the East and West {{Ancient Rome topics}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Roman clothing 2009-07-02T18:04:31Z 2009-07-02T18:04:31 2009-07-02T18:04:31Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> '''Clothing in ancient Rome''' generally consisted of the [[toga]], the [[tunic]], the [[stola]], [[brooch]]es for these, and [[breech]]es. ==Primary Materials== ===Fibers=== The Romans used several different types of [[fiber]]s. [[Wool]] was likely used most often, as it was obtained easily and was relatively easy to prepare. Other materials used were [[Flax|linen]] and [[hemp]], even though a more complex preparation process is required to create cloth from these sources than from wool. There is some evidence that [[cotton]] was used,but less often. [[Silk]], imported from several locations also was known. [[Wild silk]], that is, cocoons collected from the wild after the insect had eaten its way out, also was known. Wild silk, being of smaller lengths, had to be spun. A rare luxury cloth with a beautiful golden sheen, known as [[sea silk]], was made from the [[byssus]] or fibres produced by ''Pinna noblis'', a large Mediterranean seashell. Naturally, these different fibers had to be prepared in different ways. According to Forbes, their wool contained around 50% fatty [[lanolin|impurities]], flax and hemp were about 25% impure, silk was between 19 and 25% impure, while cotton (the most pure of all the source fibers) contained only 6% impurities. Wool, the most commonly used fiber, was most likely the first material to be spun. The [[sheep]] of [[Tarentum]] were renowned for the quality of their wool, although the Romans never ceased trying to optimise the quality of wool through cross-breeding. Wool was spun by the ''lanarii pectinarii''. The production of linen and hemp was very similar to that of wool and was described by Pliny the Elder. After the harvest, the material would be immersed (most probably in water), it would be skinned and then aired. Once dry, the fibers would be pressed mechanically (with a [[mallet]]) and then smoothed. Following this, the materials were woven. Linen and hemp both are tough and durable materials. Silk and cotton were imported, from China and [[India]] respectively. Silk was rare and expensive; a luxury afforded only to the richest and worn by women. Another type of silk, called "sea silk" was obtained from a mollusk and it was a luxury item as well. The Romans had to turn their material with a manual spinner. Iron alum was used as the base fixing agent and it is known that the marine gastropod, [[Haustellum brandaris]], was used as a red dye, due to its [[Tyrian purple|purple-red]] colorant (6,6'-dibromoindigotin); the color of the emperor. A more widely used tint was [[Indigo dye|indigo]], allowing blue or yellow shades, while [[madder]], a dicotyledon angiosperm, produced a shade of red and was one of the cheapest dyes available. According to Pliny the Elder, a blackish colour was preferred to red. Yellow, obtained from [[saffron]], was expensive and reserved for the clothing of married women or the [[Vestal Virgins]]. There were far fewer colours than we have today. Archaeological discoveries of Greek vases depict the art of weaving, while writers in the field of antiques mention the art of weaving and fiber production. Some clothes have survived for several centuries and, as clothing is necessary, examples are numerous and diverse. These materials often provide some of the most detailed and precious information on the production means used, on the dyes used, on the nature of the soil where the materials were grown and, therefore, on trade routes and climate, among many other things. Historical research in the area of ancient clothing is very active and it allows researchers to understand a great deal about the lifestyle of the Romans. The materials used were similar to those used by the ancient Greeks, except the tilling process had been ameliorated and the tilled linen and wool were of a far superior quality. ===Hides, leather, and skins=== The Romans had two main ways of tanning, one of which was mineral tanning, or "tawing" – making hide into leather without the use of tannin, especially by soaking it in a solution of alum and salt. The Romans used tools that resembled those that would be used in the Middle Ages. The tanned leather then was used to fashion heavy coats to keep Roman soldiers warm during travel, and in more frigid areas of Rome, it was used during cold seasons. The leather was not given to the soldiers by the military commanders or overseers, but rather from the soldier's wives and family{{Fact|date=May 2008}} before the soldiers left for a campaign. Although leather ''sometimes'' was used for protection against poor weather, its primary use{{Fact|date=May 2008}} was as a secondary, or less expensive armor. Roman belts, wristbands, and leather arm guard (manica ''Latin'')were made for troops, and more commonly, the gladiators. Many of the items were increased quantitatively because of practical use during the first century A.D. among Roman Legionaries. Animal skins were worn over the helmet with bearskins being popular among legionaries and feline among with Preatorians. Ancient Roman taxidermists would retain the entire body and the head, with the front legs tied to fasten over the armor. The animal's head would fit over the soldier's helmet, and mostly was worn by the Roman aquilifer who carried the symbol of Rome into battle. The Romans rarely used goatskin for their leather{{Fact|date=May 2008}}, preferring pig or sheepskin, although the ideal would be the preferred leather was that most readily available – cattle skin. The thickest and most durable leather was used for shoe soles. ==Types of Clothing== ===Looms and their effect on clothing=== In general, individual clothes were woven on vertical looms during antiquity. This contrasts with the medieval period when ''cloth'' was produced on foot-powered horizontal looms that later was made into clothes by tailors. Evidence for the transition between these two distinct systems, from Egypt, suggests that it had begun by 298 AD but it is likely that it was very gradual.The weaver sat at the horizontal loom producing rectangular lengths of cloth which never were wider than the weaver's two arms could reach with the shuttle. Conversely, a weaver who stood at a vertical loom could weave cloth of a greater width than was possible sitting down, including the toga, which could, and did, have a complex shape. ===Women's clothing=== After the second century BC, besides tunics, women wore very simple [[stola]] and usually followed the fashions of their Greek contemporaries. These stoles usually consisted of two rectangular segments of cloth joined at the side by [[safety pin]]s, brooches and, finally, buttons in a manner that allowed the garment to drape freely over the front of the wearer. Over the stole the [[Palla (garment)|palla]] usually was worn; a sort of shawl made of an oblong piece of material that could be worn as a coat, with or without hood, or slung over the left shoulder, under the right arm and then draped over the left arm [http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/clothing2.html]. ===Undergarments=== The Romans later wore undergarments, a [[tunic]], often a simple rectangle sewn into a tubular shape and pinned around the shoulders like a [[Chiton (costume)|chiton]]. The strophium or breast cloth, was another form of undergarment. The Latin word for underpants, ''[[Subligaculum|subligaria]]'' was revealed by the [[Vindolanda tablets]]. ===Official clothing=== The dress code of the day was complex and had to reflect one's position accurately in the social order, one's gender, and one's language. ====Togas==== {{main|Toga}} The variations of clothing worn in Rome were similar to the clothing worn in Greece at the same time, with the exception of the traditionally Roman toga. Until the second century B.C., the toga was worn by both genders and bore no distinction of rank - after that, a woman wearing a toga was marked out as a prostitute. The differentiation between rich and poor was made through the quality of the material; the upper-classes wore thin, naturally colored, wool togas while the lower-classes wore coarse material or thin felt. They also differentiated by colours used: *the ''[[toga praetextata]]'', with a purple border, worn by male children and magistrates during official ceremonies *the ''[[toga picta]]'' or ''toga palmata'', with a gold border, used by generals in their [[Roman triumph|triumphs]] *''trabea''' - toga entirely in purple, worn by statues of deities and emperors *''saffron'' toga - worn by [[augur]]s and [[priestess]]es, white with a purple band, also worn by consuls on public festivals and [[equites]] during a [[transvectio]] Red Borders - Blue Borders - ====Religious ceremonies==== *''laena'' - worn by the king and the [[flamen]]s at sacrifices *''crocota'' - saffron robe worn by women during ceremonies to [[Cybele]] ==Footwear== A typical Roman sandal (''calceus'' or ''calceolus'' for the women) consisted of a leather sole with a long lace that was wound up the wearer's leg. The lacing of a typical Roman shoe always would leave a part of the foot exposed. Numerous variations of these two models have been found. The majority of Roman shoes took inspiration from their Greek counterparts. It is assumed that the quality of women's shoes was judged on how thin and light the leather was. The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes worn inside sandals.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3181443.stm] ===Types=== *''baxa'' - a light sandal worn by intellectuals *''carbatina'' - a shoe made by peasants from a single piece of leather *''[[caliga]]'' - soldier's sandals (cf [[Caligula]]) *''[[cothurnus]]'' and ''crepida'' - used by the actors *''pero'' - boot for agricultural workers *''sandalium'' - or ''obstrigilium'' - women's sandals *''phaecasium'' - white shoe of eastern priests *''sculponae'' - [[clogs]] *''soccus'' - slippers without upperwork for indoor wear by both sexes *''solea'' - slipper with upperwork ==Related articles== {{Commonscat|Ancient Roman fashion}} *[[Clothing in the ancient world]]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Trajans Column 2009-07-02T17:29:59Z 2009-07-02T17:29:59 2009-07-02T17:29:59Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>'''Trajan's Column''' is a [[monument]] in [[Rome]] raised in honour of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Trajan]] and probably constructed under the supervision of the architect [[Apollodorus of Damascus]] at the order of the [[Roman Senate]]. It is located in [[Trajan's Forum]], built near the [[Quirinal Hill]], north of the [[Roman Forum]]. Completed in 113, the freestanding column is most famous for its spiral [[bas relief]], which commemorates [[Trajan]]'s victory in the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Dacian Wars]]. Its design has inspired numerous [[victory column]]s, both ancient and modern. The structure is about 30 meters (98 ft) in height, 38 meters (125 ft) including its large pedestal. The shaft is made from a series of 20 colossal [[Carrara]] marble drums, each weighing about 40 tons, with a diameter of 3.7 meters (11 ft). The 190 meter (625 ft) frieze winds around the shaft 23 times. Inside the shaft, a spiral staircase of 185 stairs provides access to a viewing platform at the top. The capital block of Trajan's Column weighs 53.3 tons which had to be lifted to a height of ca. 34 m. Ancient coins show the column originally topped with a statue of a bird, probably an eagle, and later by a heroically nude statue of Trajan himself, which disappeared in the [[Middle Ages]]. On December 4 1587, the top was crowned by [[Pope Sixtus V]] with a bronze figure of [[St. Peter]], which remains to this day. == Frieze == A continuous frieze winds up around the shaft from base to capital. The relief portrays Trajan's two victorious military campaigns against the [[Dacia]]ns; the lower half illustrating the first (101-102), and the top half illustrating the second (105-106). The two sections are separated by a personification of [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]] writing on a shield flanked on either side by Trophies. Otherwise, the scenes on the frieze unfold continuously and in [[Perspective (graphical)|tipped-up perspective]]. The imagery is not realistic as the sculptor pays little attention to perspective. Often a variety of different perspectives are used in the same scene, so that more can be revealed (e.g. a different angle is used to show men working behind a wall). The scenes depict mostly the Roman army in military activities such as setting out to battle and engaging the Dacians, as well as constructing fortifications and listening to the emperor's address and the successs he accomplished. The carvings are crowded with sailors, soldiers, statesmen and priests, showing about 2,500 figures in all and providing a valuable source of information for modern historians on Roman and barbaric arms and methods of warfare (such as forts, ships, weapons etc.). The relief shows such details as a [[ballista]] or catapult for example. The emperor Trajan, depicted realistically (not superhuman), makes 59 appearances among his troops. == Spiral stair == The interior of Trajan's column is hollow: entered by a small doorway at one side of the base, a spiral stair of 185 steps gives access to the platform above, having offered the visitor in antiquity a magnificent view over the surrounding Trajan's forum; 43 window slits illuminate his ascent. The column stands 38.4 m high from the ground to the top of the statue base:to function as a vantage point, and to maintain its own visual impact on the forum. The column proper, that is the shaft without the pedestal, the statue and its base, is 29.76 m high, a number which almost corresponds to 100 [[Ancient Roman units of measurement|Roman feet]]; beginning slightly above the bottom of the base, the helical staircase inside measures a mere 8 cm less. The column is composed of 29 blocks of Luna marble, weighting in total more than 1100 t. The spiral stair itself was carved out of 19 blocks, with a full turn every 14 steps; this arrangement required a more complex geometry than the more usual alternatives of 12 or 16. The quality of the craftsmanship was such that the staircase is practically even, and the joints between the huge blocks still fit accurately. Despite numerous earthquakes in the past, the column today leans at an angle of less than half a degree. Trajan's column, and especially its helical stairway design, exerted a considerable influence on subsequent [[Roman architecture]]. While spiral stairs were before still a rare sight in Roman buildings, this space-saving form henceforth spread gradually throughout the empire. Apart from the practical advantages it offered, the design also became closely associated with imperial power, being later adopted by Trajan's successors [[Antoninus Pius]] and [[Marcus Aurelius]]. In [[Napoleon]]'s time, a similar column decorated with a spiral of relief sculpture was erected in the [[Place Vendôme]] in [[Paris]] to commemorate his victory at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]]. == Inscription == The inscription at the base of the column in finest lettering reads: <blockquote>SENATVS·POPVLVSQVE·ROMANVS IMP·CAESARI·DIVI·NERVAE·F·NERVAE TRAIANO·AVG·GERM·DACICO·PONTIF MAXIMO·TRIB·POT·{{Overline|XVII}}·IMP·{{Overline|VI}}·COS·{{Overline|VI}}·P·P AD·DECLARANDVM·QVANTAE·ALTITVDINIS MONS·ET·LOCVS·TANT<IS·OPER>IBVS·SIT·EGESTVS</blockquote>  Translated, the inscription reads: <blockquote>The [[SPQR|Senate and people of Rome]] [give or dedicate this] to the emperor Caesar, son of the divine [[Nerva]], Nerva Traianus Augustus Germanicus Dacicus, ''[[pontifex maximus]]'', in his 17th year in the office of [[tribune]], having been acclaimed 6&nbsp;times as ''[[imperium|imperator]]'', 6&nbsp;times [[consul]], ''[[pater patriae]]'', to demonstrate of what great height the hill [was] and place [that] was removed for such great works.</blockquote> It was believed that the column was supposed to stand where the saddle between the [[Capitoline]] and [[Quirinal]] Hills used to be, having been excavated by Trajan, but excavation has revealed that this is not the case. The saddle was where [[Trajan's Forum]] and [[Trajan's Market]] stood. Hence, the inscription refers to the Trajan's entire building project in the area of the [[Imperial fora]]. This is perhaps the most famous example of [[Roman square capitals]], a script often used for stone monuments, and less often for manuscript writing. As it was meant to be read from below, the bottom letters are slightly smaller than the top letters, to give proper perspective. Some, but not all, word divisions are marked with a dot, and many of the words, especially the titles, are abbreviated. In the inscription, numerals are marked with a ''titulus'', a bar across the top of the letters. A small piece at the bottom of the inscription has been lost. The [[typeface]] [[Trajan (typeface)|Trajan]], designed in 1989 by [[Carol Twombly]], uses letterforms based on this inscription. There have been many other typefaces based on the inscription from such designers as [[Frederic Goudy]].[http://www.myfonts.com/browse/keyword/trajan/] == Construction == :''See also: [[Crane (machine)#History|Roman cranes]]'' It is assumed that the column drums were lifted by [[crane (machine)|crane]]s into their place. Ancient sources, as well as a substantial corpus of archaeological evidence, prove that [[Roman engineers]] were capable of raising large weights clear off the ground. The typical drum of Trajan's Column weighs ca. 32 t, while the [[Capital (architecture)|capital]], the heaviest block above base and pedestal, is even at 53.3 t, which had to be lifted 34 m high. Even so, for such loads the typical Roman [[treadwheel]] crane, which, moreover, could only reach a maximum height of 15 to 18 m, was clearly inadequate. Instead, a tower-like wooden construction was erected around the building site, in the midst of which the marble blocks were raised by a system of [[pulley]]s, ropes and [[capstan]]s; these were powered by a large workforce of men and possibly also [[draught animal]]s, spread out on the ground. According to modern calculations, eight capstans were needed to hoist the 55 t base block, while the length of rope required for the highest drums measured some 210 m assuming two-block pulleys. Such a lifting tower was later also used to great effect by the [[Renaissance]] architect [[Domenico Fontana]] to relocate [[obelisk]]s in Rome. From his report, it becomes obvious that the coordination of the lift between the various pulling teams required a considerable amount of concentration and discipline, since, if the force was not applied evenly, the excessive stress on the ropes would make them rupture. In case of Trajan's column, the difficulties were exacerbated even further by the simultaneous work on the neighbouring Basilica Ulpia, which limited the available space so that the capstan crews had proper access only from one side. == Purpose == It was traditionally thought that the Column was a propagandistic monument, glorifying the emperor's military exploits. However, the structure would have been generally invisible and surrounded by the two libraries in [[Trajan's Forum]], and because of the difficulty involved in following the frieze from end to end, it could be said to have had much less propaganda value. On the other hand, as Paul Veyne notes, the relief could be read "vertically" from below, with the stereotypical, highly recognizable figure of the emperor recognizable across the bands of images— just as, on the Colonne Vendôme, Napoleon's figure can be picked up, scene after scene. After Trajan's death in 117, the [[Roman Senate]] voted to have Trajan's ashes buried in the Column's square base which is decorated with captured [[Dacia]]n arms and armor. His ashes and those of his wife, [[Plotina]], were set inside the base in [[gold]]en urns. (The ashes no longer lie there.)</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Cities along the Silk Road 2009-07-02T16:22:42Z 2009-07-02T16:22:42 2009-07-02T16:22:42Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> ==Along the continental Silk Road== '''From Istanbul, Turkey to Yazd, Iran:''' * [[Constantinople]] (now [[Istanbul]]), [[Turkey]] * [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]], Turkey * [[Beypazarı, Ankara|Beypazarı]], Turkey * [[Antioch]], Turkey * [[Konya]], Turkey * [[Adana]], Turkey * [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]] ** ''following the river [[Euphrates]] until Fallujah'' * [[Damascus]], [[Syria]] * [[Ramadi]], [[Iraq]] * [[Fallujah]], Iraq * [[Abu Ghraib]], Iraq * [[Baghdad]], Iraq * [[Baquba]], Iraq * [[Kermanshah]], [[Iran]] * [[Hamadan]], Iran * [[Ray, Iran]] * [[Tehran]], Iran * [[Hecatompylos]] (was probably located near [[Damghan]]), Iran * [[Sabzevar]], Iran * [[Neyshabur]], Iran * [[Yazd]], Iran '''From Yazd, Iran to Turpan, China''' (See below: northern route along the Taklamakan desert)''':''' * [[Merv]], [[Turkmenistan]] * [[Old Urgench|Urgench]], Turkmenistan * [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]] * [[Samarkand]], Uzbekistan * [[Khujand]], Tajikistan * [[Istaravshan]], Tajikistan * [[Shahrisabz]], Uzbekistan * [[Hazrat-e Turkestan]], [[Kazakhstan]] * [[Ürümqi]], [[China]] [[Image:Urgench.jpg|thumb|Ruins of [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Muhammad II]]'s palace in [[Old Urgench]].]] '''From Yazd, Iran to Kashi, China:''' * [[Herat]], [[Afghanistan]] * [[Bamyan]], Afghanistan ** ''the famous [[Buddhas of Bamyan]] destroyed by the [[Taliban]] in 2001'' * [[Kabul]], Afghanistan * [[Peshawar]], [[Pakistan]] ** ''the [[Karakorum highway]]'' * [[Ahmedabad]], [[India]] * [[Mumbai]], India * [[Kashgar|Kashi (or Kashgar)]], [[China]] '''From Kabul, Afghanistan to Arabian Sea port at Debal, Pakistan''' * [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]] * [[Peshawar]], [[Pakistan]] * [[Taxila]], Pakistan * [[Multan]], Pakistan * [[Debal]], Pakistan * [[Damascus]], [[Syria]] * [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] * [[Aden]] '''The northern route along the [[Taklamakan Desert]] from Kashi, China to Anxi, China:''' * [[Li Jien]]. An ancient, possibly [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] settlement. * [[Aksu, Xinjiang|Aksu]], [[China]] * [[Kuqa]] or [[Kucha]], [[China]] * [[Korla]], China * [[Jiaohe]], China * [[Loulan]], China * [[Turpan]] or [[Turfan]], China ** ''[[Turfan water system|Turfan Water Museum]]'' * [[Gaochang]] ** ''the [[Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves]]'' * [[Kumul]]/Hami, [[China]] [[Image:View of the Mosque of Hazrat in the town of Turkestan.JPG|250px|right|thumb|The [[Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi]] in the town of [[Hazrat-e Turkestan]]. Built by [[Timur]] in the 1390s.]] '''The southern route along the [[Taklamakan]] desert from Kashi, China to Anxi, China:''' * [[Hotan]] or [[Khotan]], [[China]] * [[Minfeng]], [[China]] * [[Niya (Tarim Basin)|Niya]], [[China]] * [[Dunhuang]], China * [[Miran (China)|Miran]], China ** ''the [[Mogao Caves]]'' '''From Anxi, China to Xi'an, China:''' * [[Anxi]], [[China]] * [[Yumen]], China * [[Zhangye]], China * [[Wuwei]], China * [[Lanzhou]], China * [[Xi'an]] (ancient name is [[Chang'an]]), China '''Korea''' * [[Pyongyang]], [[Korea]] * [[Gyeongju]], Korea '''Japan''' * [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] ==Along the Silk Road of the sea== *[[Debal]], Pakistan *[[Ningbo]], China *[[Quanzhou]], China *[[Guangzhou]], China *[[Ulsan]], Korea *[[Colombo]], Sri Lanka *[[Poompuhar]], Tamilnadu, India *[[Korkai]], Tamilnadu, India *[[Musiri]], Kerala, India *[[Goa]], [[India]] *[[Mumbai]], [[India]] *[[Cochin]], [[India]] *[[Masulipatnam]], [[India]] *[[Lothal]], [[India]] *[[Astrakhan]], Russia *[[Derbent]], Russia *[[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], Oman *[[Aden]], Yemen *[[Suez]], Egypt *[[Ayas (city)|Ayas]], Turkey *[[Venice]], Italy *[[Rome]], Italy ====On Southeast Asia==== * Kedah ([[Early history of Kedah]]) * [[Langkasuka]] * [[Ligor]] * [[Chi Tu]] * [[Gangga Nagara]] * [[Malacca]] * [[Pan Pan]] * [[Funan]] * [[Muziris]], [[India]] * [[Vijaya]] of [[Champa]], [[India]] * [[Chenla]], [[India]] * [[Cambodia|Khmer]] / [[Kambuja]] * [[Hoi An]] * [[Srivijaya]], [[Indonesia]] * [[Pasai]], [[Indonesia]] * [[Perlak]], [[Indonesia]] * [[Hanoi]] ==List of Ptolemy== This following list is attributed to [[Ptolemy]]. All city names are Ptolemy's, throughout all his works. Most of the names are included in ''[[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]]''. Some of the cities provided by Ptolemy either * no longer exist today or * have moved to different locations. Nevertheless, Ptolemy has provided an important historical reference for researchers. (''This list has been alphabetized.'') *[[Africa]] - :[[East Africa|East]] - [[Akhmim]], [[Aromaton Emporion]], [[Axum]], [[Coloe]], [[Dongola]], [[Juba]], [[Maji]], [[Opone]], [[Panopolis]], [[Sarapion]], [[Sennar]]. :[[North Africa|North]] - [[Caesarea]], [[Carthage]], [[Cyrene]], [[Leptis Magna]], [[Murzuk]], [[Sijilmassa]], [[Tamanrasset]], [[Tingis]]. *[[Arabia]] - [[al-Mukalla|Cane]], [[Eudaemon Arabia]], [[Mocha, Yemen|Moscha]], [[Mosyllon]], [[Sana]], [[Saphar]], [[Saue]]. *[[China]] - [[Cattgara]], [[Chengdu]], [[Kaifeng]], [[Qitai|Kitai]], [[Kunming]], [[Yarkand]]. *[[Europe]] - [[Aquileia]], [[Athens]], [[Augusta Treverorum]] ([[Trier]]), [[Gades]] ([[Cadiz]]), [[Ostia]]. *[[India]] - [[Argaru]], [[Astakapra]], [[Bacare]], [[Balita]], [[Barake]], [[Barbaricum]], [[Byzantion]], [[Colchi]], [[Erannoboas]], [[Horaia]], [[Kalliena]], [[Mandagora]], [[Melizeigara]], [[Muziris]],[[korkai]],[[Poompuhar]],[[Naura]], [[Nelcynda]], [[Paethana]], [[Palaepatmae]], [[Palaesimundu]], [[Poduca]], [[Semylla]], [[Sopatma]], [[Suppara]], [[Tagara]], [[Tymdis]]. *[[Persia]] - [[Alexandria Areion]], [[Kandahar]], [[Persepolis]]. *[[Persian Gulf]] - [[Apologos]], [[Asabon]], [[Charax]], [[Gerra]], [[Ommana]]. *[[Red Sea]] - [[Adulis]], [[Aualites]], [[Berenice Troglodytica|Berenica]], [[Malao]], [[Mocha, Yemen|Muza]], [[Myos Hormos]], [[Ocalis]], [[Ptolemais Theron]]. *[[South East Asia]] - [[Thaton]], [[Trang]]. *Unknown - [[Ecbatana]] (located in either modern [[Iran]] or [[Syria]]), [[Jiaohei]]. [[Category:Lists of cities in Asia|Silk Road]] [[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Step pyramid 2009-06-30T18:31:50Z 2009-06-30T18:31:50 2009-06-30T18:31:50Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> The construction of '''step pyramids''' has been an ancient part of several cultures throughout history from the. These [[pyramid]]s typically are large and made of several layers, or steps, of stone. The term refers to pyramids of similar design that emerged separately from one another, as there was no connection between the different civilizations that built them. ==[[Mesopotamia]]== {{Main|Ziggurat}} [[Image:Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq 2005.jpg|thumb|300px|The 4100 year old [[Great Ziggurat of Ur]] in southern [[Iraq]].]] [[Ziggurat]]s were huge religious monuments built in the ancient [[Mesopotamia]]n valley and western [[Iranian plateau]], having the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels. There are 32 ziggurats known at, and near, Mesopotamia. Twenty-eight of them are in [[Iraq]], and four of them are in [[Iran]]. Notable Ziggurats include the [[Great Ziggurat of Ur]] near [[Nasiriyah]], Iraq, the [[Ziggurat of Aqar Quf]] near [[Baghdad]], Iraq, [[Chogha Zanbil]] in [[Khūzestān Province|Khūzestān]], Iran, the most recent to be discovered - [[Tappeh Sialk|Sialk]] near [[Kashan]], Iran and others. Ziggurats were built by the [[Sumer]]ians, [[Babylon]]ians, [[Elam]]ites and [[Assyria]]ns as monuments to local religions. The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the [[Ubaid period]]<ref name="Crawford, page 73">Crawford, page 73</ref> during the fourth [[millennium]] BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC. The top of the ziggurat was flat, unlike many pyramids. The step pyramid style began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.<ref>Crawford, page 73-74</ref> Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a [[pyramid]]al structure. Sun-baked [[brick]]s made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had [[Astrology|astrological]] significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven, with a shrine or temple at the summit. Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. ==[[Ancient Egypt]]== The earliest Egyptian pyramids were step pyramids. During the Third dynasty of Egypt, the architect Imhotep built Egypt's first step pyramid, the [[Pyramid of Djoser]], by building a series of six successively smaller mastabas (an earlier form of tomb structure), one atop of another. Later pharaohs, including Sekhemkhet and Khaba, built similar structures. The first step pyramid was built for Djoser (or Zoser). By the time of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt, plans had changed into the transformation of the "true pyramid". The earliest smooth-sided pyramid, located at Meidum, started out as a step pyramid under Huni structure. Sneferu's own later monuments, the Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid at Dahshur, were the first true pyramids to be built as such from scratch, and it was with this innovation that the age of Egyptian stepped pyramids came to an end.''' ==[[Mesoamerica]]== {{Main|Mesoamerican pyramids}} The most prolific builders of these step pyramids were the [[Pre-Columbian]] civilizations. The remains of step pyramids can be found throughout the [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] cities of the [[Yucatán]], as well as in [[Aztec]], [[Toltec]], and [[Inca Empire|Inca]] architecture. In many of these cases, successive layers of pyramids were built on top of the pre-existing structures, with which the pyramids expanded in size on a cyclical basis. This is true of the [[Great Pyramid of Cholula]] and of the [[Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan]]. ==See also== *[[Ziggurat]] *[[Egyptian pyramids]] *[[Mesoamerican pyramids]] *[[Pyramids of Güímar]]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Mesoamerican pyramids 2009-06-30T18:27:47Z 2009-06-30T18:27:47 2009-06-30T18:27:47Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>'''Mesoamerican pyramids''', pyramid-shaped structures, are an important part of ancient [[Mesoamerican architecture]]. These structures were usually [[step pyramid]]s with temples on top &ndash; more akin to the [[ziggurat]]s of [[Mesopotamia]] than to the [[Egyptian pyramid|pyramids of Ancient Egypt]]. The [[Mesoamerica]]n region's largest [[pyramid]] by volume &ndash; indeed, the largest in the world by volume &ndash; is the [[Great Pyramid of Cholula]], in the [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[Mexican state|state]] of [[Puebla]]. ==Aztecs== The [[Aztec]]s, a people with a rich mythology and cultural heritage, dominated central Mexico in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries.Their capital was [[Tenochtitlan]] on the shore of [[Lake Texcoco]] &ndash; the site of modern-day [[Mexico City]]. They were related to the preceding cultures in the basin of Mexico such as the culture of [[Teotihuacan]] whose building style they adopted and adapted. *[[Malinalco]] *[[Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan]] [[Image:Uxmal adivino ground level.jpg|right|thumb|175px|Uxmal]] ==Maya== The [[Maya civilization|Maya]] are a people of southern [[Mexico]] and northern [[Central America]] ([[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], western [[Honduras]], and [[El Salvador]]) with some 3,000 years of history. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence shows the Maya started to build ceremonial architecture approximately 3,000 years ago. The earliest monuments consisted of simple [[Tumulus|burial mounds]], the precursors to the spectacular stepped pyramids from the [[Terminal Pre-classic]] period and beyond. These pyramids relied on intricate carved stone in order to create a stair-stepped design. Many of these structures featured a top platform upon which a smaller dedicatory building was constructed, associated with a particular [[Maya mythology|Maya deity]]. Maya pyramid-like structures were also erected to serve as a place of interment for powerful rulers. Maya pyramidal structures occur in a great variety of forms and functions, bounded by regional and periodical differences. *[[Altun Ha]] *[[Calakmul]] *[[Caracol]] *[[Comalcalco]] *[[Copan]] *[[Chichen Itza]] *[[El Mirador]] **[[La Danta]] temple, is also the name of the largest Maya temple. The temple reaches 79 metres (259 ft) high, and with a volume of 2,800,000 cubic meters, it is one of the largest pyramids in the world. **[[El Tigre (pyramid)|El Tigre]] **[[Los Monos]] *[[Lamanai]] *[[Palenque]] *[[Tikal]] *[[Uxmal]] ==Tarascans== The [[Tarascan state]] was a precolumbian culture located in the modern day Mexican state of [[Michoacán]]. The region is currently inhabited by the modern descendents of the [[P'urhépecha]]. Tarascan architecture is noted for "T"-shaped [[step pyramid]]s known as ''[[yácata]]s''. *[[Tzintzuntzan]] ==Teotihuacan== The [[Teotihuacan]] civilization, which flourished from around 300 BCE to 500 CE, at its greatest extent included most of Mesoamerica. Teotihuacano culture collapsed around 550 and was followed by several large city-states such as Xochicalco (whose inhabitants were probably of [[Matlatzinca]] ethnicity), Cholula (whose inhabitants were probably [[Oto-Manguean languages|Oto-Manguean]]), and later the ceremonial site of Tula (which has traditionally been claimed to have been built by [[Toltecs]] but which now is thought to have been founded by the [[Huastec civilization|Huastec]] culture). *[[El Castillo]] & [[Chichen Itza#High_Priest.27s_Temple|High Priest's Temple]] in [[Chichen Itza]] *[[Pyramid of the Sun|Pyramids of the Sun]], [[Pyramid of the Moon|the Moon]] and [[Temple of the Feathered Serpent, Teotihuacan|Temple of the Feathered Serpent]] in [[Teotihuacan]] *[[Xochicalco]] *[[Tula (Hidalgo)|Tula]] * [[ Talud-tablero]] [[Image:Tajin1913.jpg|right|thumb|200px|El Tajín]] ==Classic Veracruz== The best known [[Classic Veracruz culture|Classic Veracruz]] pyramid, the Pyramid of Niches in [[El Tajín]], is smaller than those of their neighbours and successors but more intricate. *[[El Tajín]] ==Zapotecs== The [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]]s were one of the earliest Mesoamerican cultures and held sway over the [[Valley of Oaxaca]] region from the early first millennium BCE to about the 14th century. *[[Monte Albán]] *[[Mitla]] ==Others== The following sites are from northern Mesoamerica, built by cultures whose ethnic affiliations are unknown: ===Altavista=== This astronomical and ceremonial center was the product of the [[Chalchihuite]] culture. Its occupation and development had a period of approximately 800 years (ca. 200&mdash;1000). This zone is considered an important archaeological center because of the astonishing, accurate functions of the edifications. The ones that stand out the most are: '''The Moon Plaza''', '''The Votive Pyramid''', the '''Ladder of Gamio''' and '''The labyrinth'''. In The Labyrinth you can appreciate with precision and accuracy, the respective equinoxes and the seasons. ====La Quemada==== A great quantity of buildings were constructed on artificial terraces upon the slopes of a hill. The materials used here include stone slab and clay. The most important structures are: '''The Hall of Columns''', '''The Ball Court''', '''The Votive Pyramid''', and '''The Palace and the Barracks'''. On the most elevated part of the hill is '''The Fortress'''. This is composed of a small pyramid and a platform, encircled by a wall that is more than 800m long and up to six feet high. La Quemada was occupied from 800 to 1200. Their founders and occupants have not been identified with certainty but probably belonged to either the [[Chalchihuites]] culture or that of the neighbouring Malpaso culture. == See also == *[[Ziggurat]] *[[Step pyramid]] *[[Egyptian pyramids]] *[[Mesoamerican architecture]] *[[Caral|South American pyramids]] *[[Pyramid]] *[[Cahokia]]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Olmec mythology 2009-06-30T16:34:32Z 2009-06-30T16:34:32 2009-06-30T16:34:32Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>The '''religion of the [[Olmec]]''' people significantly influenced the social development and mythological world view of [[Mesoamerica]]. Many scholars have seen echoes of Olmec supernaturals in the subsequent religions and mythologies of nearly all later [[pre-Columbian]] Mesoamerican cultures. The first Mesoamerican civilization, the Olmec, developed on present-day Mexico's southern Gulf Coast in the centuries before 1200 [[Common era|BCE]]. The culture lasted until roughly 400 BCE, at which time their center of [[La Venta]] lay abandoned. The Olmec culture is often considered a "mother culture" to later Mesoamerican cultures. There is no surviving direct account of the Olmec's religious beliefs, unlike the [[Maya civilization|Maya]], with their [[Popul Vuh]], or the Aztecs, with their many [[Aztec codices|codices]] and [[conquistador]] accounts. Archaeologists, therefore, have had to rely on other techniques to reconstruct Olmec beliefs, most prominently: *Typological analysis of Olmec iconography and art. *Comparison to later, better documented pre-Columbian cultures. *Comparison to modern-day [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] cultures. The latter two techniques assume that there is a continuity extending from Olmec times through later Mesoamerican cultures to the present day. This assumption is called the Continuity Hypothesis. Using these techniques, researchers have discerned several separate deities or supernaturals embodying the characteristics of various animals. ==Rulers, priests, and shamans== Olmec religious activities were performed by a combination of rulers, full-time priests, and [[shaman]]s. The rulers seem to have been the most important religious figures, with their links to the Olmec deities or supernaturals providing legitimacy for their rule. There is also considerable evidence for shamans in the Olmec archaeological record, particularly in the so-called "[[Olmec figurine#transformation figures|transformation figures]]". [[Image:Las Limas left shoulder.svg|left|150px|thumb|Figure from [[Las Limas Monument 1]], generally identified as the Bird Monster. Note the "flame eyebrows".]] ==Olmec supernaturals== Specifics concerning Olmec religion are a matter of some conjecture. Early researchers found religious beliefs to be centered upon a jaguar god. This view was challenged in the 1970s by Peter David Joralemon, whose Ph. D. paper and subsequent article posited what are now considered to be 8 different supernaturals. Over time Joralemon's viewpoint has become the predominant exposition of the Olmec pantheon. The study of Olmec religion, however, is still in its infancy and any list of Olmec supernaturals or deities can be neither definitive nor comprehensive. The names and identities of these supernaturals are only provisional and the details concerning many of them remain poorly known. The confusion stems in part because the supernaturals are defined as a cluster of icongraphic motifs. Any given motif may appear in multiple supernaturals. For example "flame eyebrows" are seen at times within representations of both the Olmec Dragon and the Bird monster, and the cleft head is seen on all five supernaturals that appear on [[Las Limas Monument 1]]. ===Olmec Dragon (God I)=== Also known as the Earth Monster, the Olmec Dragon has flame eyebrows, a bulbous nose, and bifurcated tongue. When viewed from the front, the Olmec Dragon has trough-shaped eyes; when viewed in profile, the eyes are L-shaped. Fangs are prominent, often rendered as an upside-down U-shaped bracket. With the Bird Monster, the Olmec Dragon is one of the most commonly depicted supernaturals. [[Image:Seated Olmec Jaguar from San Lorenzo, Veracruz.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Monument 52 from [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan]]. Some researchers identify this figure as the were-jaguar while others state that it instead represents the Rain Deity. The long deep groove carved into the back of this [[basalt]] sculpture indicates it was part of the drainage system.]] === Maize deity (God II) === Another probable deity is identified by the plants sprouting from its cleft head. A carved [[celt (tool)|celt]] from Veracruz shows a representation of God III , or the Maize God, growing corn from his cleft, and also shows this god with the snarling face associated with the jaguar. This deity is rarely shown with a full body. ===Bird Monster (God III)=== The Bird Monster is often identified with the [[harpy eagle]], although it also has mammalian and reptilian features. The bird monster is associated with rulership. === Rain Spirit and/or Were-jaguar (God IV)=== {{Main|Were-jaguar}} There is considerable disagreement between researchers whether the Rain Spirit and were-jaguar are one distinct or two separate supernaturals. Interestingly enough, Joralemon states that the Olmec rain spirit "is based on were-jaguar features", but is not the were-jaguar per se. Taube however separately proposes that the Rain Spirit is instead the seed phase version of the Maize God. === Feathered serpent (God VII)=== {{main|Feathered Serpent}} Designated God VII by Joralemon, the feathered (or plumed) serpent depicted throughout [[Mesoamerica]] first appears in Olmec times where it was a divinity of considerable significance. ===Fish or Shark Monster (God VIII)=== Most often recognized by its shark tooth, when depicted in its full-body form, the [[anthropomorph]]ic Fish Monster is also shown with crossed bands, a dorsal fin, and a split tail. [[Image:Tlapacoya Bowl.PNG|left|frame|Clay bowl from Tlapacoya, showing the Banded-eye God.]] ===Banded-eye God (God VI)=== This enigmatic deity is named for the narrow hand that runs along the side of its face through its almond-shaped eye with its round [[iris (eye)|iris]]. Like many other supernaturals, the Banded-eye God has a cleft head and a downturned mouth. Unlike others, the Banded-eye God is known from its profile - these renditions are generally concentrated on bowls from the [[Valley of Mexico]] (as shown on left), although the Banded-eye God is one of the five supernaturals shown on [[Las Limas Monument 1]] from the [[Olmec heartland]]. Rather than a distinct supernatural in its own right, however, Taube finds God VI to be yet another aspect of the Maize God.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Wonders of the Ancient World 2009-06-28T13:57:20Z 2009-06-28T13:57:20 2009-06-28T13:57:20Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>Various lists of the '''Wonders of the World''' have been compiled over the ages to catalogue the most spectacular man-made constructions and natural things in the world. The [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]] is the first known list of the most remarkable man-made creations of [[classical antiquity]], and was based on guide-books popular among [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] sight-seers and only includes works located around the [[Mediterranean]] rim. The number seven was chosen because the Greeks believed it to be the representation of perfection and plenty. Many similar lists have been made, including lists for the Medieval World and the Modern World. ==Seven Wonders of the Ancient World== The historian [[Herodotus]] (484 BC&ndash;ca. 425 BC), and the scholar [[Callimachus]] of [[Cyrene]] (ca 305&ndash;240 BC) at the Museum of [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]], made early lists of Seven wonders but their writings have not survived, except as references. The seven wonders included: *[[Great Pyramid of Giza]] *[[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] *[[Statue of Zeus at Olympia]] *[[Temple of Artemis|Temple of Artemis at Ephesus]] *[[Mausoleum of Maussollos|Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus]] *[[Colossus of Rhodes]] *[[Lighthouse of Alexandria]] The earliest lists had the [[Ishtar Gate]] as the seventh wonder of the world instead of the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]]. The Greek category was not Wonders but "''thaumata''"(Greek: '''Θαύματα'''), which translates closer to "things to be seen". The list that we know today was compiled in the [[Middle Ages]]—by which time many of the sites were no longer in existence. Today, the only ancient world wonder that still exists is the Great Pyramid of Giza. ==Wonders of the Medieval World== Many lists of wonders of the world are said to have existed during the [[Middle Ages]], although it is unlikely that these lists originated at that time because the word [[medieval]] was not even invented until the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]-era, and the concept of a Middle Age did not become popular until the 16th century. Brewer's refers to them as later lists suggesting the lists were created after the Middle Ages. Many of the structures on these lists were built much earlier than the Medieval Ages, but were well known. These lists go by names such as Wonders of the Middle Ages (implying no specific limitation to seven), Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages, Medieval Mind and Architectural Wonders of the Middle Ages. Typically representative of the seven greatest wonders of the Medieval world are:  *[[Stonehenge]] *[[Colosseum]] *[[Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa]] *[[Great Wall of China]] *[[Porcelain Tower of Nanjing]] *[[Hagia Sophia]] *[[Leaning Tower of Pisa]] == Wonders of the modern world == Many lists have been made of the greatest structures built during modern times or of the greatest wonders existing today. Some of the most notable lists are presented below. === American Society of Civil Engineers === The [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] compiled a list of wonders of the modern world:  {| class="wikitable" |- !| '''Wonder'''||'''Date Started'''||'''Date Finished'''||'''Location |- |[[Channel Tunnel]] |[[December 1]], [[1987]] |[[May 6]], [[1994]] |[[Strait of Dover]], between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] |- |[[CN Tower]] |[[February 6]], [[1973]] |[[June 26]], [[1976]], tallest freestanding structure in the world 1976-2007.  |[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] |- |[[Empire State Building]] |[[January 22]], [[1930]] |[[May 1]], [[1931]], Tallest structure in the world 1931-1967. First building with 100+ stories. |[[New York City|New York]], [[New York|NY]], [[United States|U.S.]] |- |[[Golden Gate Bridge]] |[[January 5]], [[1933]] |[[May 27]], [[1937]] |[[Golden Gate Strait]], north of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]] |- |[[Itaipu|Itaipu Dam]] |January 1970 |[[May 5]], [[1984]] |[[Paraná River]], between [[Brazil]] and [[Paraguay]] |- |[[Delta Works]]/ [[Zuiderzee Works]] |1950 |[[May 10]], [[1997]] |[[Netherlands]] |- |[[Panama Canal]] |[[January 1]], [[1880]] |[[January 7]], [[1914]] |[[Isthmus of Panama]] |- |} === New 7 Wonders Foundation's seven wonders of the world === {{Main|New Seven Wonders of the World}} In 2001 an initiative was started by the Swiss corporation New7Wonders Foundation to choose the [[New Seven Wonders of the World]] from a selection of 200 existing monuments for profit. [[New Seven Wonders of the World#New Seven Wonders contenders|Twenty-one finalists]] were announced [[January 1]], [[2006]]. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Wonder ! Date of construction ! Location |- style="vertical-align: middle;" | [[Great Wall of China]] | 5th century BCE – 16th century CE | [[China]] |- style="vertical-align: middle;" | [[Petra]] | ''Unknown'' | [[Jordan]] |- style="vertical-align: middle;" | [[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|Christ the Redeemer]] | Opened [[12 October]] [[1931]] | [[Brazil]] |- style="vertical-align: middle;" | [[Machu Picchu]] | ''c.''1450 | [[Peru]] |- style="vertical-align: middle;" | [[Chichen Itza]] | ''c.''600 | [[Mexico]] |- style="vertical-align: middle;" | [[Roman Colosseum]] | Completed 80 CE | [[Italy]] |- style="vertical-align: middle;" | [[Taj Mahal]] | Completed ''c.''1648 | [[India]] |- style="vertical-align: middle;" | [[Great Pyramid]] (Honorary Candidate) | Completed ''c.''2560 BCE | [[Egypt]] |} {{anchor|New Seven Wonders}} === USA Today's New Seven Wonders === In November 2006 the American national newspaper ''[[USA Today]]'' in conjunction with the American television show ''[[Good Morning America]]'' revealed a list of New Seven Wonders as chosen by six judges. The wonders were announced one per day over a week on ''Good Morning America''. An eighth wonder was chosen on [[November 24]] from viewer feedback. {| class="wikitable" ! Number ! Wonder ! Location |- | 1 | [[Potala Palace]] | [[Lhasa]], [[Tibet]], [[China]] |- | 2 | [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City of Jerusalem]] | [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]] |- | 3 | [[Polar ice cap]]s | [[Polar region]]s |- | 4 | [[Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument]] | [[Hawaii]], [[United States]] |- | 5 | [[Internet]] | N/A |- | 6 | [[Maya civilization|Maya]] [[Maya architecture|ruins]] | [[Yucatán Peninsula]], [[México]] |- | 7 | Great Migration of [[Serengeti National Park|Serengeti]] and [[Masai Mara]] | [[Tanzania]] and [[Kenya]] |- | 8 | [[Grand Canyon]] (viewer-chosen eighth wonder) | [[Arizona]], [[United States]] |} === Seven Natural Wonders of the World === Similar to the other lists of wonders, there is no consensus on a list of seven natural wonders of the world, as there has been debate over how large the list should be. One of the many lists was compiled by [[CNN]]:  *[[Grand Canyon]] *[[Great Barrier Reef]] *Harbour of [[Rio de Janeiro]] *[[Mount Everest]] *[[Aurora (astronomy)|Aurora]] *[[Parícutin]] volcano *[[Victoria Falls]] [[New7Wonders of Nature]] is a contemporary effort to create a list of seven natural wonders chosen by people through a global poll, organized by New Open World Corporation (NOWC), which ran the [[New Seven Wonders of the World]] campaign. [[Seven Natural Wonders]]: is a not for profit endeavour created to protect the seven natural wonders that have already been established. === Seven Wonders of the Underwater World === The Seven Underwater Wonders of the World was a list drawn up by [[CEDAM International]], an American-based non-profit group for divers, dedicated to ocean preservation and research. In 1989 CEDAM brought together a panel of marine scientists, including Dr. Eugenie Clark, to pick underwater areas which they considered to be worthy of protection. The results were announced at The National Aquarium in Washington DC by actor [[Lloyd Bridges]], who played in a TV show titled ''[[Sea Hunt]]'':  *[[Palau]] *[[Belize Barrier Reef]] *[[Great Barrier Reef]] *[[Hydrothermal vent|Deep-Sea Vents]] *[[Galápagos Islands]] *[[Lake Baikal]] *[[Red Sea|Northern Red Sea]] === Seven Wonders of the Industrial World === {{Main|Seven Wonders of the Industrial World}} British author [[Deborah Cadbury]] wrote ''[[Seven Wonders of the Industrial World]]'', a book telling the stories of seven great feats of engineering of the [[nineteenth century|nineteenth]] and early [[twentieth century|twentieth]] centuries. In 2003 the [[BBC]] made a seven-part [[television documentary|documentary]] series on the book, with each episode dramatising the construction one of the wonders. The seven industrial wonders are:  *[[SS Great Eastern|SS ''Great Eastern'']] *[[Bell Rock Lighthouse]] *[[Brooklyn Bridge]] *[[London sewerage system]] *[[First Transcontinental Railroad]] *[[Panama Canal]] *[[Hoover Dam]]  === Travel wonders of the world === Travel writer [[Howard Hillman]] is one of many who have compiled lists of the top man-made tourist travel wonders of the world: ==== Man-made travel wonders ====  # [[Giza pyramid complex]] # [[Great Wall of China]] # [[Taj Mahal]] # [[Machu Picchu]] # [[Bali]] # [[Angkor Wat]] # [[Forbidden City]] # [[Bagan#Cultural sites|Bagan Temples & Pagodas]] # [[Karnak Temple]] # [[Teotihuacán]]  ==== Natural travel wonders ====  # [[Serengeti|Serengeti Migration]] # [[Galápagos Islands]] # [[Grand Canyon]] # [[Iguazu Falls]] # [[Amazon Rainforest]] # [[Ngorongoro Crater]] # [[Great Barrier Reef]] # [[Victoria Falls]] # [[Bora Bora]] # [[Cappadocia]]  ==See also== *[[Eighth Wonder of the World]] * [[World Heritage List]] - a list of over 800 sites deemed by [[UNESCO]] to be of "outstanding universal value" * National lists of Seven Wonders ** [[Seven Wonders of Canada]] ** [[Seven Wonders of Poland]] ** [[Seven Wonders of Portugal]] ** [[Seven Wonders of Ukraine]] ** [[Seven Wonders of Wales]] * [[Fore Abbey#Seven Wonders of Fore|Seven Wonders of Fore]] (Fore Abbey, Ireland) * [[Seven Blunders of the World]] — a list by [[Mahatma Gandhi]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==External links== * [http://www.asce.org/history/seven_wonders.cfm Seven Wonders of the Modern World] - a list of modern wonders compiled by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Hernando de Soto explorer 2009-06-22T19:49:42Z 2009-06-22T19:49:42 2009-06-22T19:49:42Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>'''Hernando De Soto''' (c.1496/1497 - 1542) was a [[Spanish people|Spanish]] explorer and [[conquistador]] who, while leading the first [[Europe]]an expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day [[United States]], was the first European to discover the [[Mississippi River]]. A vast undertaking, de Soto's expedition ranged throughout the [[southeastern United States]] searching for gold and a passage to [[China]]. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of the [[Mississippi River]] at present-day [[Lake Village, Arkansas]]. Hernando de Soto was born to parents who were [[Hidalgo (Spanish nobility)|hidalgos]] of modest means in [[Extremadura]], a region of poverty and hardship from which many young people looked for ways to seek their fortune elsewhere. Two towns—[[Badajoz]] and [[Barcarrota]]—claim to be his birthplace. All that is known with certainty is that he spent time as a child at both places, and he stipulated in his will that his body be interred at Jerez de los Caballeros, where other members of his family were also interred. The age of the Conquerors came on the heels of the Spanish [[Reconquista|reconquest]] of the [[Iberian peninsula]] from Islamic forces. Spain and [[Portugal]] were filled with young men begging for a chance to find military fame after the [[Moors]] were defeated. With discovery of new lands to the west (which seemed at the time to be [[East Asia]]), the whispers of glory and wealth were too compelling for the poor. De Soto sailed to the [[New World]] in 1514 with the first Governor of [[Panama]], [[Pedrarias Dávila]]. Brave leadership, unwavering loyalty, and clever schemes for the extortion of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native villages]] for their captured chiefs became de Soto's hallmark during the [[History of Panama|Conquest of Central America]]. He gained fame as an excellent horseman, fighter, and tactician, but was notorious for the extreme brutality with which he wielded these gifts. During that time, [[Juan Ponce de León]], who discovered [[Florida]], [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]], who discovered the [[Pacific Ocean]] (he called it the "South Sea" below Panama), and [[Ferdinand Magellan]], who first sailed that ocean to the [[Orient]], profoundly influenced de Soto's ambitions. ==First expedition – The Conquest of Peru== In 1530, de Soto became a regidor of [[León, Nicaragua]], and led an expedition up the coast of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] searching for passage between the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]] in order to trade Spain's New World fortunes with the Orient, the richest market in the world. Failing that, and without means to further explore, de Soto, upon Dávila's death, left his estates in [[Nicaragua]] and De Soto joined Pizarro at his first base of [[Tumbes (city)|Tumbez]] shortly before Pizarro departed for the interior of Peru, bringing his own men with him on ships he had hired. Pizarro immediately made de Soto one of his captains. When Pizarro and his men first encountered the army of the Inca [[Atahualpa]] at [[Cajamarca]], Pizarro sent de Soto with fifteen men to invite Atahualpa to a meeting. When Pizarro's men attacked Atahualpa and his guard the next day (the [[Battle of Cajamarca]]), de Soto was in charge of one of the three groups of mounted soldiers. The Spanish captured Atahualpa, and the next day de Soto was again sent to the camp of the Incan army, where he and his men plundered Atahualpa's tents.<ref>MacQuarrie. Pp. 57-68, 71-2, 91-2.</ref> During 1533, Atahualpa was held captive in Cajamarca for many months while a room was filled with gold and silver objects to ransom him. During this captivity, de Soto became friendly with Atahualpa, teaching him how to play chess. By the time the ransom had been completed, the Spanish became alarmed by rumors of an Incan army advancing on Cajamarca. Pizarro sent de Soto with four men to scout for the rumored army. <!-- De Soto had 200 Spaniards to complete this conquest While de Soto was gone the Spanish in Cajamarca decided to kill Atahualpa to prevent his rescue by the Incan army. De Soto returned later to report that he could find no signs of an army in the area. After the execution of Atahualpa, Pizarro and his men headed to [[Cuzco]], the capital of the Incan Empire. As the Spanish force approached Cuzco, Francisco Pizarro sent his brother [[Hernando Pizarro]] and Hernando de Soto ahead to the city with forty men. The advance guard fought a pitched battle with Incan troops in front of the city, but the battle had ended before Francisco Pizarro arrived with the rest of the Spanish party, and the Incan army withdrew during the night. The Spanish plundered Cuzco, where they found much gold and silver. De Soto had received a mounted soldier's share of the plunder from Atahualpa's camp, Atahualpa's ransom, and the plunder from Cuzco, and had become very wealthy. On the road to Cuzco, [[Manco Inca Yupanqui|Manco Inca]], a brother of Atahualpa, had joined Pizarro. Manco had been hiding from Atahualpa in fear of his life, and was happy to place himself under Pizarro's protection. Pizarro arranged for Manco to be installed as the Inca. De Soto joined Manco in a campaign to eliminate the Incan armies that had been loyal to Atahualpa. By 1534, de Soto was serving as lieutenant governor of Cuzco while Pizarro was building his new capital (which later became known as [[Lima]]) on the coast. In 1535 King [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles]] awarded [[Diego de Almagro]], Francisco Pizarro's former business partner, the governorship of the southern portion of the Incan Empire. Pizarro and de Almagro quarreled over which governorship Cuzco was in. When de Almagro made plans to explore and conquer the southern part of the Incan empire ([[Chile]]), de Soto applied to be his second-in-command, offering a large payment for the position, but de Almagro turned him down. De Soto packed up his treasure and returned to Spain. ==Return to Spain== De Soto returned to Spain with an enormous share of the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire]]. Famous for being the hero of that conquest, he was admitted into the prestigious [[Order of Santiago]]. His share was awarded to him by the King of Spain, and he received 724 marks of gold, 17,740 pesos. He married [[Inés de Bobadilla|Isabel de Bobadilla]], daughter of [[Pedrarias Dávila]] and a relative of a confidante of [[Isabella of Castile|Queen Isabella]]. De Soto petitioned [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|The King]] for the government of [[Guatemala]], "with permission to make discovery in the South Sea," but was granted the governorship of [[Cuba]] instead. De Soto was expected to colonize the North American [[continent]] for Spain within four years, for which his family would be given a huge piece of it forever. Fascinated by the stories of [[Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca|Cabeza de Vaca]], Spain's just returned North American explorer, de Soto selected 620 eager [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] volunteers, some of [[Africa]]n descent, for the [[government]] of Cuba and Conquest of North America. Averaging 24 years of age, they eventually embarked from [[Havana]] on seven of the King's [[Galleon|ships]] and [[Caravel|two]] of de Soto's. With tons of heavy [[armour]] and equipment, the livestock count came to over 500, including 237 horses and 200 pigs. De Soto planned to explore America for a passage to the Orient. His men, lured by [[Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca|Cabeza de Vaca's]] stories of gold to be found, would need to provide themselves with food and shelter during their four-year continental search. Tens of thousands of natives would die as a result. ==De Soto's exploration of North America== ===Historiography=== The main course of de Soto's expedition is subject to discussions and controversy among [[historian]]s and local politicians. The most widely used version of De Soto's Trail comes from the [[Congress of the United States]]. A committee chaired by the [[anthropologist]] [[John R. Swanton]] published "The Final Report of the United States De Soto Expedition Commission" in 1939. Manatee County, Florida, among other locations, claims an approximate landing site for de Soto and is the home of a national memorial recognizing the event. The first part of the expedition's course (until de Soto's [[Mabila]] battle in Alabama) is only disputed in detail today; De Soto's Trail beyond Mabila is contested. Congress's De Soto Trail runs from there through [[Mississippi]], [[Arkansas]] and [[Texas]]. Other theories argue for a northern route through [[Tennessee]], [[Kentucky]] and [[Indiana]] from [[Mabila]]. [[Archeology|Archeological]] reconstructions and the [[oral history]] of the natives have only lately been considered. However, this bears the handicap that most historical places have been overbuilt and more than 450 years of history have passed between the incidence and its narration. The only site definitively associated with de Soto's expedition is the Governor Martin Site at the Apalachee village of [[Anhaica]], located about a mile east of the present Florida Capitol building in Tallahassee, Florida. It was found by archaeologist B. Calvin Jones in March 1987. Many archaeologists believe the [[Parkin Archeological State Park|Parkin Site]] in Northeast [[Arkansas]] to be the main town for the province of [[Casqui]], basing their belief on similarities with the written descriptions in the journals of the de Soto Expedition and artifacts of European origin discovered at the site in 1960's. The latest theory applies two [[journal]]s of de Soto exploration survivors: de Soto's Secretary, Rodrigo Ranjel, and the King's agent with de Soto, Luys Hernández de Biedma. Between them they described De Soto's Trail in relation to [[Havana]], from which they sailed, the [[Gulf of Mexico]], which they skirted inland (then later headed back toward), the [[Atlantic Ocean]], which they approached during their second year, high [[mountain]]s, which they traversed immediately thereafter, and dozens of other [[Geography|geographic features]] along their way - large [[river]]s and [[swamp]]s - at recorded [[Interval (time)|intervals]]. Given that earth's [[Geography|natural geography]] has not changed since de Soto's time, those journals, analyzed with modern [[Topography|topographic intelligence]], render a more precise De Soto Trail. ===1539 to early-1540 in Florida=== In May 1539, de Soto landed nine ships with over 620 men and 220 surviving horses at at present day Shaw's Point, in [[Bradenton, Florida|Bradenton,]] FL. He named it ''Espíritu Santo'' after the [[Holy Spirit]]. The ships brought priests, craftsmen, engineers, farmers, and merchants; some with their families, some from Cuba, most from Europe and Africa. Few of them had ever traveled outside of Spain, or even their home villages. A Spaniard named [[Juan Ortiz (explorer)|Juan Ortiz]], who had come to Florida with the failed [[Narváez Expedition]] and been held by an inland tribe, was sighted near de Soto's port. Ortiz came to Florida in search of the earlier [[Narváez Expedition]] and was captured by the [[Uzica]].The daughter of Chief Hirrihigua of the Uzica arguably served as a precursor to [[Pocahontas]] by begging for Ortiz's life, as her father had ordered Ortiz to be roasted alive. Ortiz survived captivity and torture, and joined, at the first opportunity, the new de Soto Spanish expedition. Ortiz knew the countryside and also helped as an interpreter. As a lead guide for the de Soto expedition, Ortiz established a unique method for guiding the expedition and communicating with various tribal dialects. The "Paracoxi" guides were recruited from each tribe along the route. A chain of communication was established whereby a guide who had lived in close proximity to another tribal area was able to pass his information and language on to a guide from a neighboring area. Because Ortiz refused to dress and conduct himself as a [[Hidalgo (Spanish nobility)|hidalgo]] Spaniard, his motives and council to de Soto were held in suspicion by other officers. But Don Hernando remained loyal to Ortiz, thus allowing him freedom to dress and live among his tribal Paracoxi friends. Another important guide was the seventeen-year-old boy ''Perico'', or Pedro, from modern-day [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], who spoke several of the local tribes' languages and could communicate with Ortiz. Perico was engaged as a guide in 1540 and treated better than the rest of the slaves, due to his value to the Spaniards. Hernando de Soto left port and traveled north, exploring Florida's West Coast, enduring native ambushes and conflicts along the way. His first winter encampment was at [[Anhaica]], the capital of the [[Apalachee]]. It is the only place on the entire de Soto route where archaeologists have found physical traces of de Soto's presence. It was described as being near the [[Narváez expedition#Bay of Horses|"Bay of Horses"]] where members of the preceding Narváez expedition ate valued horseflesh while building boats for escape. ===1540 – Through Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi=== From their winter location in the western panhandle of Florida, having heard of gold being mined "toward the sun's rising," the expedition turned north-east through [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[South Carolina]] to (present day) [[Columbia, South Carolina|Columbia]]. The expedition was received there by a friendly female chief, who turned over her tribe's pearls, food and anything else the Spaniards wanted. No gold however, other than pieces from an earlier coastal expedition, presumably that of [[Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón]], could be found. [[Image:De Soto burns Mabila HRoe 2008.jpg|thumb|left|200px|De Soto's men burn [[Mabila]], illustration by Herb Roe]] De Soto headed north into the [[Appalachian Mountains]] of [[North Carolina]] where he spent one month resting the horses while his men searched for gold. De Soto then entered [[Tennessee]] and Northern [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], where he spent another month eating native foods, then turned south toward the [[Gulf of Mexico]] to meet his two ships bearing fresh supplies from Havana. Along his way, along a river in southern [[Alabama]], de Soto was led into ''Mauvila'' (or ''Mabila''), a fortified city.The [[Mobilian]] tribe, under [[Chief Tuskaloosa]], ambushed de Soto's army. The Spaniards managed to fight their way out and then attacked and burnt the city to the ground. During that nine hour encounter, twenty Spaniards died, most were wounded, and twenty more died during the next few weeks. The Native American warriors of that area—between 2,000 and 6,000 of them—died fighting in the fields, by fire in the city, or by [[suicide]]. Even though the Spaniards "won" the battle, they lost most of their possessions and forty horses. The Spaniards were wounded, sickened, surrounded by enemies and without equipment in an unknown territory. Fearing that word of this would reach Spain if his men reached the ships at [[Mobile Bay]], de Soto led them away from the gulf coast, into [[Mississippi]], most likely near present-day Tupelo, where they spent the winter. ===1541 – To the west through Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Texas=== In the spring of 1541, de Soto demanded 200 men as porters from the Chickasaw. They denied his claim and attacked the Spanish camp during the night. The Spaniards lost about forty men and the remainder of their equipment. According to participating chroniclers, the expedition could have been destroyed. Luckily for the expedition, the Chickasaw let them go, intimidated by their own success. On May 8, 1541, de Soto's troops reached the [[Mississippi River]]. It is unclear whether he, as it is claimed, was the first European to see the great river. However, his expedition is the first to be documented in official reports as seeing the river. De Soto was less interested in this discovery though, recognizing it, first of all, as an obstacle to his mission. He and 400 men had to cross the broad river, which was constantly patrolled by hostile natives. After about one month, and the construction of several floats, they finally crossed the Mississippi at or near [[Randolph, Tennessee]] and continued their travels westwards through modern-day Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. They wintered in Autiamique, on the [[Arkansas River]]. After a harsh winter, the Spanish expedition decamped and moved on more and more erratically. Their faithful interpreter, Juan Ortiz, had died, making it more difficult to find directions, food sources and communicate with the Indians in general. The expedition went as far inward as the [[Caddo River]], where they clashed with a militant Native American tribe called the [[Tula]], who the Spaniards considered to be the most skilled and dangerous warriors they had ever encountered. This possibly happened in the area of present day [[Caddo Gap, Arkansas]] (a monument stands in that community). Eventually, the Spaniards returned to the Mississippi River. In 1541, Hernando DeSoto became the first European to see what [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] referred to as the Valley of the Vapors, [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]], when he and his men reached the area. Members of many Native American tribes had been gathering in the valley for untold numbers of years to enjoy the healing properties of the thermal springs. There was agreement among the tribes that they would put aside their weapons and partake of the healing waters in peace while in the valley. De Soto and his men stayed just long enough to claim the area for Spain. <center>__________________________________________________________________________________________________________</center> ====De Soto's Original Route Disputed==== With the discovery of new documents and information, new translations, the careful study of geography and the careful examination of what already exists, our understanding of historical events changes to reflect this new or revised information. The route of Hernando De Soto's Trail was first proposed in 1857 by [[Henry Schoolcraft|Henry Rowe Schoolcraft]]. The currently accepted version was proposed by [[John Reed Swanton|Dr. John Reed Swanton]] (1873-1958) and established by congress in 1939, some 395 years after De Soto set out to explore what became the United States. Both were, and remain only theories, as is the following{{Who|date=May 2009}}. One thing about theories, they can never be proved, only disproved. As evidenced by the above section titled [[Hernando de Soto#Historiography|Historiography]], the accepted theories change with time. Mr. Donald E. Sheppard has spent many hours pouring over documents, translating from the original Spanish, and actually visiting all the sites mentioned{{Fact|date=May 2009}}. <blockquote> =====Similar Trails in SC, NC, TN and GA===== Based on the personal observations of De Soto's Personal Secretary, Rodrigo Rangel, Fernandez de Biedma (the agent of the King of Spain), a Portuguese office who identified himself as ''A Gentleman of Elvas'' and on the published interviews with De Soto's soldiers and others by [[Garcilaso de la Vega]], it is now believed by some that Hernando De Soto's journeys were more extensive than first believed. Instead of only reaching a northern point somewhere near the present day city of [[Memphis, Tennessee]], some now feel his explorations took him and his troops into South Carolina, at or near Shell Landing on April 21, 1540, then traveling northeast, arriving at the location of modern day [[Columbia, South Carolina]] on the last day of May, 1540. They left Columbia on May 12 and marched in a northwesterly direction through present day [[Union, South Carolina|Union]] then onward to the present day location of [[Tryon, North Carolina]] where they arrived on May 21, 1540. They continued their march in a northwesterly direction until reaching a spot near the present day city of [[Asheville, North Carolina]]. The explorers remained at this location four days before heading in a generally westerly direction, crossing into [[Tennessee]] at Deal's Gap, North Carolina|Deal's Gap]] on June 29, 1540 . They continued west, following the Little [[Tennessee River]] to a place called [[Chota (Cherokee town)|Chote]]. From this point they began to follow the [[Tennessee River]] to the location of present day [[Chattanooga]], arriving there on July 14, 1540. On July 15, 1540 the band of Spaniards turned south and crossed into present day [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] >, and proceeded to march in a south southwesterly direction, cutting across the northeast corner of the state, and exiting Georgia at a point northeast of present day [[Gaylesville, Alabama]]. They continued to march across [[Alabama]] toward the southwest, in search of the great sea (the [[Gulf of Mexico]]), until they reached the present day city of [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama]] on about October 16, 1540. At this point the Proposed Trial and the conventionally accepted trail converge. =====The Trails Differ===== At the Indian city of [[Mabila]] De Soto's troops fought a battle with between 2,000 and 6,000 Native Americans. After a Spanish "victory" De Soto changed his route and headed due north through the location of present day [[Moundville, Alabama]] on to the [[Tennessee River]] at [[Muscle Shoals]], arriving on December 15, 1540 De Soto and his band continued in a north northeasterly direction and crossed into present day Tennessee at a point southwest of present day [[Loretto, Tennessee|Loretto]]. They continued on path. They camped for the winter at a site now found within Davy Crockett State Park, northwest of present day [[Lawrenceburg, Tennessee]] . In the spring they marched north, reaching a site south of the location of present day [[Clarksville, Tennessee]] where there were no bluffs on the Tennessee River, and were able to cross with ease. In early May, 1541 De Soto and his troupe cross into present day Kentucky at a point just north of present day Clarksville, Tennessee. On the 21st of May, 1541 they came to a "Great River" (the [[Ohio River]]) at the present day location of [[Henderson, Kentucky]] and made their camp near the present day [[John James Audubon State Park]]. Here they built rafts for crossing the river, since it was too deep to ford. They crossed the Ohio River into Indiana on June 8, 1541 at a point at present day [[Evansville, Indiana]] They loosely following the present day line forming the border between [[Illinois]] and [[Indiana]]. They made note of crossing a prairie with "grass to tall and so strong that a horse that even with the horses we could not force our way through it" They continued all the way to [[Lake Michigan]] on July 8, 1541, near the present day city of [[Chicago]]. From that point De Soto and his band turned south, retracing their steps, then turning generally west traversing the southern part of Illinois to the present day location of [[Kaskaskia]] on the [[Mississippi River]]. After crossing the Mississippi River on September 6, 1541, they traveled through the [[St. Francois Mountains]] then southwest across the [[Ozarks|Missouri Ozarks]], exiting [[Missouri]] at a point south of present day [[Branson, Missouri]] on October 5, 1541. =====The Trails Converge===== Near present day [[Harrison, Arkansas]], on October 7, 1541,they encountered and battled hostile Indians. From Harrison they marched south east to the location of present day [[Clinton, Arkansas]]. From Clinton they marched in a generally east northeasterly direction until they reached the location of present day [[Batesville, Arkansas]], arriving there on the last of October, 1541. From Batesville they followed the [[White River (Arkansas)|White River]] southwest to the location of present day [[Jacksonport, Arkansas|Jacksonport]] where they camped and spent the winter of 1541-1542. On March 6, 1542 they departed Jacksonport and marched to the Mississippi River, where they turned south. They followed the Mississippi River to [[Arkansas Post National Memorial|Arkansas Post]] near the mouth of the [[Arkansas River]]. From there they marched west approximately to a location near the present day McArthur, Arkansas. It was here that Hernando De Soto died on May 21, 1542. Under the new leadership of Luis de Moscoso, the band of explorers left on June 5, 1542, marching toward the present day city of [[Shreveport, Louisiana]]. =====A Slight Variation In Texas===== On June 17, 1542 the band crossed into [[Louisiana]] southwest of the present day town of [[El Dorado, Arkansas]].They continued marching to the southwest, arriving at the present day city of Shreveport on June 20, 1542. The band stayed there until the next full moon (June 27, 1542)when they left Louisiana and crossed into [[Texas]]. Their route took them in a generally southwesterly direction, meandering through what would latrer become [[Waco, Texas|Waco]] and [[Killeen, Texas|Kileen]] all the way to present day [[Austin, Texas|Austin]]. Here, De Soto's army stopped, and sent scouting parties to the west and southwest. After hearing the reports from the scouting parties, it was decided to leave this region. October 23, 1542, under a full moon, they began their march back to the present day city of Shreveport in a more direct northeasterly line. =====Similar Exit Trails===== They re-entered Louisiana on late October, 1542. From Shreveport they marched due east to the present day location of [[Monroe, Louisiana]], where they arrived on November 7, 1542. Here they turned to the northeast, marching to [[Lake Village, Arkansas]] , then roughly north northwest along the river to the present day location of [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas]], arriving in mid November. Here they would spend the winter of 1542-1543. While here they built "ships" to use for an escape down river in the spring. While there they raided the Indian settlements at the location of present day [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] and the [[Toltec Mounds Archeological State Park]] for supplies. On the 2nd of July, 1543, three hundred twenty-two Spaniards left under the darkness of a new moon on seven brigantines that had built over the previous winter. It took the small army 17 days to reach the mouth of the mighty Mississippi. They averaged 40 miles per day. Once they reached the great sea (The [[Gulf of Mexico]]) they followed the coast west around Louisiana and south along Texas. They reached the mouth of the Panuco River, a known possession of Spain on September 10, 1543, </blockquote> <center>___________________________________________________________________________________________________________</center> ===De Soto's death=== De Soto died of a fever on May 21, 1542, in the Indian village of Guachoya (near present-day McArthur, Arkansas) on the western banks of the Mississippi. Upon his death, de Soto chose former [[Maître de camp|maestro de campo]] (roughly, field commander) [[Luis de Moscoso Alvarado]] to assume command of the expedition. Since de Soto had encouraged the local natives to believe he was an [[Immortality|immortal]] sun god (as a ploy to gain their submission without conflict), his men had to conceal his death. They hid his corpse in blankets weighted with sand and sank it in the middle of the Mississippi River during the night; however, Native Americans were skeptical of de Soto's deity claims. {{Spanish colonization of the Americas}} ===Return of the expedition to Mexico City=== De Soto's expedition had explored ''La Florida'' for three years without finding the expected treasures or a hospitable site for their colonization efforts. They had lost nearly half their men, most of the horses had been killed, they were wearing animal skins for clothes and many were injured and in poor health. Upon consensus (although not total) it was decided to abort the expedition and try to find a way home, either down the Mississippi River, or overland across Texas to the Spanish colony of Mexico City. It was decided that building boats would be too difficult and time–consuming, and that navigating the Gulf of Mexico too risky—so they headed overland to the southwest. Eventually they reached a region in present-day Texas that was dry and the native populations thinned out to subsistence hunter-gatherers, which presented a serious problem as there were no villages to raid for food and the army was too large to live off the land. They were forced to backtrack to the more civilized regions along the Mississippi, and there began building seven ''bergantínes'', or [[brigantine]]s. They melted down all the iron they had, including horse tackle and slave shackles, to make nails for the boats. Winter came and went and the spring floods delayed another two months, but by July they set off down the Mississippi for the coast. Taking about 2 weeks to make the journey, they encountered hostile tribes along the whole course who would follow the boats in canoes harassing with arrows sometimes for days on end as they drifted through their territory—the Spanish had no effective offensive weapons on the water as their crossbows had long ceased working, and so they could only rely on armor and sleeping mats to block the arrows. About 11 Spaniards were killed along this stretch and many more wounded. On reaching the mouth of the Mississippi the boats stayed close to the Gulf shore heading south and west, and after about 50 days they made it to the [[Pánuco River]] and the Spanish frontier town of [[Pánuco (Veracruz)|Pánuco]]. There they rested for about a month, during which time many of the Spaniards, having safely returned and reflecting on their accomplishments, decided they had left ''La Florida'' too soon without founding a settlement, leading to fights and some deaths. However, after they continued on to Mexico City and Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza offered to lead another expedition back to ''La Florida'', few volunteered. Out of the initial 700 participants, somewhere between 300 and 350 survived (311 is a commonly accepted figure)—most eventually stayed in the New World, settling in Mexico, Peru, Cuba and other Spanish colonies == Effects == De Soto's excursion to Florida was, from his view and the view of his men, a failure. They acquired neither gold nor prosperity and founded no colonies. The reputation of the expedition, at the time, was more like that of the later [[Don Quixote]] than that of [[Hernán Cortés]]. Nonetheless, it had several consequences. On one hand, the expedition left its traces in the areas they traveled through. Some of the horses that escaped or were stolen helped establish the first populations of [[Mustang (horse)|mustang]]s in western North America{{Fact|date=August 2008}} and the [[pig|swine]] that de Soto brought were the ancestors of [[Razorback]] pigs in the [[southeastern United States]]. De Soto was instrumental in forming the aggressive and hostile relationship between the Natives and Europeans. On several occasions they encountered hostile Natives in the new lands, and more times than not his expedition instigated the clashes. More devastating than the battles, however, were the diseases carried by the members of the expedition. Several areas the expedition crossed were depopulated. Many of the natives fled the populated areas struck by the illnesses towards the surrounding hills and swamps. The social structures of the population at the time were fundamentally changed. The records of the expedition contributed in large part to geographic, biological, and ethnological knowledge in Europe. The de Soto expedition's descriptions of the North American natives are the earliest known source of knowledge on the societies in the southeastern North Americas. They are, in fact, the only European description of North American native habits before the natives encountered other Europeans. De Soto's men were, at the same time, the first and nearly last Europeans to experience the [[Mississippian culture]]. De Soto's expedition also led the Spanish crown to reconsider Spain's attitude towards its colonies north of [[Mexico]]. He created a claim on large parts of the North Americas for the Spaniards, with their missions concentrated mainly on the state of [[Florida]] and the Pacific coast. [[De Soto County, Mississippi|De Soto County]], [[Mississippi]] (where he allegedly died), the county seat [[Hernando, Mississippi|Hernando]], [[De Soto Parish, Louisiana|De Soto Parish]], [[Louisiana]], and both [[De Soto County, Florida|De Soto]] and [[Hernando County, Florida|Hernando County]] in [[Florida]] are named after Hernando de Soto. [[Fort De Soto Park]] at the far southern tip of the city of [[St. Petersburg, Florida]] and [[DeSoto State Park]] in [[Alabama]] also bear his name. The place of his disembarkation, [[Espiritu Santo, Florida|Espiritu Santo]], is marked by the [[De Soto National Memorial]] west of [[Bradenton, Florida]]. Several other cities and a [[DeSoto (automobile)|brand of car]] are named after him, as well as DeSoto School, a private school in Helena, Arkansas ==Sites visitied by the de Soto expedition== * [[List of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition]] ==External links== *[http://www.floridahistory.com/ Hernando de Soto's Conquest of North America] *[http://floridahistory.com/prescott1.html Hernando de Soto in the Conquest of South America] *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04753a.htm Hernando de Soto in the Conquest of Central America] *[http://www.floridahistory.com/inset33.html Details of Hernando de Soto's Trail thru the United States] *[http://www.floridahistory.com/inset78m.html Detailed Maps of Hernando de Soto's United States Trail] *[http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/ark/COUGHLN1.ARK Research to Reconstruct the Route of the Expedition] *[http://www.floridahistory.com/soto-biography.html Brief Biography of Hernando de Soto] *[http://www.nps.gov/deso/ De Soto Memorial in Florida] *[http://mysite.verizon.net/vze7ugru/debunksheppard/index.html floridahistory.com has it wrong] Discussion of a Disputed Portion of the de Soto Trail *[http://www.ci.hot-springs.ar.us/ City of Hot Springs] City of Hot Springs Official Website *[http://www.nps.gov/hosp/ National Park Service, Hot Springs National Park] • [[National Park Service|U.S. National Park Service]] website *[http://www.hot-springs-ar-info.com/hot-springs-ar-history.html Hot Springs history and facts] *[http://www.floridahistory.com/inset78m.html Conquest States], Updated Routes of de Soto, de Vaca and Coronado</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Hernán Cortés 2009-06-19T23:27:36Z 2009-06-19T23:27:36 2009-06-19T23:27:36Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> '''Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca''' ({{IPA-es|erˈnan korˈtes}}; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a [[Spain|Spanish]] ''[[conquistador]]'' who led an expedition that caused the [[conquest of the Aztec Empire|fall of the Aztec empire]] and brought large portions of mainland [[Mexico]] under the [[Crown of Castile|King of Castile]], in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish colonizers that began the first phase of the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]. Born in [[Medellín (Spain)|Medellín]], [[Extremadura]], [[Spain]], to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés chose to pursue a livelihood in the New World. He went to [[Hispaniola]] and later to [[Cuba]], where he received an ''[[encomienda]]'' and, for a short time, became alcalde (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, an expedition which he partly funded. His enmity with the governor of Cuba, [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]], resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Cortés ignored. Arriving on the continent, Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous peoples against others. He also used a native woman, [[Doña Marina]], as interpreter; she would later bear Cortés a son. When the Governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés, he fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforcements. Cortés wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of punished for mutiny. After he overthrew the Aztec empire, Cortés was awarded the title of ''Marqués del Valle de [[Oaxaca]]'', while the more prestigious title of [[New Spain|Viceroy]] was given to a high-ranking nobleman, [[Antonio de Mendoza]]. Cortés returned to Spain in 1541 where he died peacefully but embittered. Because of the controversial undertakings of Cortés and the scarcity of reliable sources of information about him, it has become difficult to assert anything definitive about his personality and motivations. Early lionizing of the conquistadors did not encourage deep examination of Cortés. Later reconsideration of the conquistadors' character in the context of modern anti-colonial sentiment and greatly expanded concern for human rights, as typified by the [[Black Legend]], also did little to expand understanding of Cortés as an individual. As a result of these historical trends, descriptions of Cortés tend to be simplistic, and either damning or idealizing. ==Name== While he is often now referred to as '''Hernán''' or '''Hernando Cortez''' ({{IPA-es|kɔrˈtɛθ|IPA}}), in his time he called himself ''Hernando'' or ''Fernando Cortés''. The names Hernán, Hernando, and Fernando are all equally correct. The latter two were most commonly used during his lifetime, but the former shortened form has become common in both the Spanish and English languages in modern times, and is the name which many people know him by today. ==Early life== Cortés was born in [[Medellín (Spain)|Medellín]], in the province of [[Extremadura]], in the [[Kingdom of Castile]] in Spain in 1485. His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy, born in 1449 to Rodrigo or Ruy Fernández de Monroy and his wife María Cortés, was an [[infantry]] [[Captain (OF-2)|captain]] of distinguished ancestry but slender means. Hernán's mother was Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, Hernán was the second cousin once removed of [[Francisco Pizarro]], who later conquered the [[Inca]] empire of modern-day [[Peru]] (not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined Cortés to conquer the [[Aztec]]s), through her parents Diego Altamirano and wife and cousin Leonor Sánchez Pizarro Altamirano, first cousin of Pizarro's father. Through his father, Hernán was a twice distant relative of [[Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres]], the third Governor of Hispaniola. His paternal grandfather was a son of [[Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of Monroy]], and wife Mencía de Orellana y Carvajal. Hernán Cortés is described as a pale, sickly child by his [[biographer]], [[chaplain]], and friend [[Francisco López de Gómara]]. At the age of 14, Cortés was sent to study at the [[University of Salamanca]] in west-central Spain. This was Spain's great center of learning, and while accounts vary as to the nature of Cortés' studies, his later writings and actions suggest he studied [[Law]] and probably [[Latin language|Latin]]. After two years, Cortés, tired of schooling, returned home to Medellín, much to the irritation of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped for a profitable legal career. However, those two years at Salamanca, plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in Seville and later in [[Hispaniola]], would give him a close acquaintance with the legal codes of Castile that helped him to justify his unauthorized conquest of Mexico. At this point in his life, Cortés was described by Gómara as restless, haughty, and mischievous. This was probably a fair description of a sixteen-year-old boy who had returned home only to find himself frustrated by life in his small provincial town. By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Columbus in the New World was streaming back to Spain. ==Departure for the New World== Plans were made for Cortés to sail to the Americas with a family acquaintance and distant relative, [[Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres]], the newly appointed governor of [[Hispaniola]] (currently [[Haiti]] and the [[Dominican Republic]]), but an injury he sustained while hurriedly escaping from the bedroom of a married woman from Medellín, prevented him from making the journey. Instead, he spent the next year wandering the country, probably spending most of his time in the heady atmosphere of Spain's southern ports of Cadiz, Palos, Sanlucai, and Seville, listening to the tales of those returning from the Indies, who told of discovery and conquest, gold, Indians and strange unknown lands. He finally left for [[Hispaniola]] in 1504 where he became a colonist. ===Arrival=== Cortés did not arrive in the "[[New World]]" until he finally succeeded in reaching [[Hispaniola]] in a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages. Quintero's mutinous conduct may have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career. The history of the conquistadores is rife with accounts of rivalry, jockeying for positions, mutiny, and betrayal. Upon his arrival in 1504 in [[Santo Domingo]], the capital of Hispaniola, the eighteen-year-old Cortés registered as a citizen, which entitled him to a building plot and land to farm. Soon afterwards, [[Nicolás de Ovando]], still the governor, gave him a ''[[repartimiento]]'' of Indians and made him a notary of the town of [[Azua de Compostela]]. His next five years seemed to help establish him in the colony; in 1506, Cortés took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and Indian slaves for his efforts from the leader of the expedition. ===Cortés in Cuba=== In 1511, Cortés had recovered from syphilis and accompanied [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]], an aide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. Velázquez was appointed as governor. At the age of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsibility of ensuring that the Crown received the ''[[quinto]]'', or customary one-fifth of the profits from the expedition. The governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, was so impressed with Cortés that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. Cortés continued to build a reputation as a daring and bold leader. He became secretary for Governor Velázquez. Cortés was twice appointed municipal magistrate (''[[alcalde]]'') of [[Santiago de Cuba|Santiago]]. In Cuba, Cortés became a man of substance with a ''[[repartimiento]]'' (gift of land and Indian slaves), mines and cattle. This new position of power also made him the new source of leadership, which opposing forces in the colony could then turn to. In 1514, Cortés led a group which demanded that more Indians be assigned to the settlers. As time went on, relations between Cortés and governor Velázquez became strained.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} This all began once news of [[Juan de Grijalva]], establishing a colony on the mainland where there was a lot of silver and gold, reached Velázquez; it was decided to send him help. Cortés was appointed captain-general of this new expedition in October 1518, but was advised to move fast before Velázquez changed his mind. With Cortés’experience as an administrator, knowledge gained from many failed expeditions, and his impeccable rhetoric he was able to gather six ships and 300 men, within a month. Predictably, Velázquez’s jealousy exploded and decided to place the leadership of the expedition in other hands. However, Cortés quickly gathered more men and ships in other Cuban ports. Cortés also found time to become romantically involved with Catalina Xuárez (or Juárez), the sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez. Part of Velázquez' displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés was trifling with Catalina's affections. Cortés was temporarily distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina, reluctantly, under pressure from Governor Velázquez. However, by doing so, he hoped to secure the good will of both her family and that of Velázquez. It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies, that Cortés began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of affairs in the thriving colony. He missed the first two expeditions, under the orders of [[Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (discoverer of Yucatán)|Francisco Hernández de Córdoba]] and then [[Juan de Grijalva]], sent by Diego Velázquez to Mexico in 1518. ==Conquest of Mexico== In 1518 Velázquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. At the last minute, due to the old gripe between Velázquez and Cortés, he changed his mind and revoked his charter. Cortés ignored the orders and went ahead anyway, in February 1519, in an act of open mutiny. Accompanied by about 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses and a small number of cannons, he landed in the Yucatan Peninsula in [[Mayan civilization|Mayan]] territory. There, he met [[Jeronimo de Aguilar]], a Spaniard who had survived from a shipwreck and joined the troops.<ref name=Grunberg/> Jeronimo de Aguilar, a Franciscan priest, had learnt Maya during his captivity, and could thus translate for Cortés. In March 1519, Cortés formally claimed the land for the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish crown]]. He stopped in Trinidad to hire more soldiers and obtain more horses. Then he proceeded to Tabasco and won a battle against the natives, who did not want to welcome the Spaniards, during which time he received from the vanquished twenty young indigenous women and he converted them all.<ref>Crowe, John A. The Epic of Latin America. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1992. 4th ed. p.75</ref> Among these women was [[La Malinche]], his future mistress and mother of his child Martín. Malinche knew both the (Aztec)[[Nahuatl language]] and Maya, thus enabling Hernán Cortés to communicate in both. She became a very valuable interpretor and counselor. Through her help, Cortés learned from the Tabascans about the wealthy Aztec Empire and its riches. In July 1519, his men took over [[Veracruz]]: by this act, Cortés dismissed the authority of the governor of Cuba to place himself directly under the orders of Charles V. In order to eliminate any ideas of retreat, Cortés scuttled his ships. In Veracruz, he met some of Moctezuma's tributaries and asked them to arrange a meeting with Moctezuma. Moctezuma repeatedly turned down the meeting, but Cortés was determined. Leaving a hundred men in Veracruz, Cortès marched on [[Tenochtitlan]] in mid-August 1519, along with 600 men, 15 horsemen, 15 [[cannon]]s, and hundreds of indigenous carriers and warriors. On the way to [[Tenochtitlan]], Cortés made alliances with [[indigenous people of the Americas|native American]] tribes such as the [[Nahua people|Nahuas]] of [[Tlaxcala (Nahua state)|Tlaxcala]], the [[Tlaxcaltec]], who surrounded the Spanish and about 2,000 porters onto of a hilltop, and the [[Totonac]]s of [[Cempoala]]. In October 1519, Cortés and his men, accompanied by about 3,000 Tlaxcalteca, marched to [[Cholula (Mesoamerican site)|Cholula]], the second largest city in central Mexico. Cortés, either in a pre-meditated effort to instill fear upon the Aztecs waiting for him at Tenochtitlan or (as he later claimed when under investigation) wishing to make an example when he feared native treachery, infamously massacred thousands of unarmed members of the nobility gathered at the central plaza, then partially burned the city. By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlan the [[Spaniards]] had a large army. On November 8, 1519, they were peacefully received by the Aztec Emperor [[Moctezuma II]], due to Mexican tradition and diplomatic customs. Moctezuma deliberately let Cortés enter the heart of the Aztec Empire, hoping to get to know their weaknesses better and to crush them later. He gave lavish gifts in gold to the Spaniards which enticed them to plunder vast amounts of gold. In his letters to Charles V, Cortés claimed to have learned at this point that he was considered by the Aztecs to be either an emissary of the feathered serpent god [[Quetzalcoatl]] or Quetzalcoatl himself &mdash; a belief which has been contested by a few modern historians. But quickly Cortès learned that Spaniards on the coast had been attacked, and decided to take Moctezuma as a hostage in his own palace, requesting him to swear allegiance to Charles V. Meanwhile, Velasquez sent another expedition, led by [[Pánfilo de Narváez]], to oppose Cortès, arriving in Mexico in April 1520 with 1,100 men. Cortés left 200 men in Tenochtitlan and took the rest to confront Narvaez. He overcame Narváez, despite his numerical inferiority, and convinced the rest of Narvaez's men to join him. In Mexico, one of Cortés' lieutenants [[Pedro de Alvarado]], committed [[The massacre in the Main Temple, Tenochtitlán|a massacre in the Main Temple]], triggering a local rebellion. Cortés speedily returned to Mexico and proposed an armistice, attempting to support himself on Moctezuma, but the latter was stoned to death by his subjects on July 1, 1520, and Cortés decided to flee for Tlaxcala. During the ''[[La Noche Triste|Noche Triste]]'' (30 June-1 July 1520), the Spaniards managed a narrow escape from Tenochtitlan across the causeway, while their backguard was being massacred. Much of the treasure looted by Cortés was lost (as well as his artillery) during this panicked escape from Tenochtitlán. After a battle in [[Otumba]], they managed to reach Tlaxcala, after having lost 870 men. With the assistance of their allies, Cortés' men finally prevailed with reinforcements arriving from [[Cuba]]. Cortés began a policy of [[attrition warfare|attrition]] towards the island city of [[Tenochtitlán]] cutting off supplies and subduing the Aztecs' allied cities thus changing the balance, and organizing the [[Fall of Tenochtitlan|siege of Tenochtitlán]], destroying the city. In January 1521, Cortés countered a conspiracy against him, headed by Villafana, who was hanged. Finally, with the capture of [[Cuauhtémoc]], the ''[[Tlatoani]]'' (ruler) of Tenochtitlán, on 13 August 1521, the Aztec Empire disappeared, and Cortés was able to claim it for Spain, thus renaming the city Mexico City. From 1521 to 1524, Cortés personally governed Mexico. ==Appointment to governorship of Mexico and internal dissensions == Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that Cortés was unjustly treated by the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish Crown]], and that he received nothing but ingratitude for his role in establishing [[New Spain]]. This picture is the one Cortés presents in his letters and in the later biography written by Gomara. However, there may be more to the picture than this. Cortés' own greed and vanity may have played a part in his deteriorating position with the King :''"Cortés personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he speedily complained of insufficient compensation to himself and his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he disobeyed many of the orders of the Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so in a letter to the emperor, dated October 15, 1524 (Ycazbalceta, "Documentos para la Historia de México", Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Cortés, besides recalling in a rather abrupt manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to him alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression."'' King Charles I of Spain, who had become [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]] in 1519, appointed Cortés as governor, captain general, and chief justice of the newly conquered territory, dubbed "[[New Spain]] of the Ocean Sea". But also, much to the dismay of Cortés, four royal officials were appointed at the same time to assist him in his governing &mdash; in effect submitting him to close observation and administration. Cortés initiated the construction of [[Mexico City]], destroying Aztec temples and buildings and then rebuilding on the Aztec ruins what soon became the most important European city in the Americas. Cortés managed the founding of new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of New Spain, imposing the ''[[encomienda]]'' land tenure system in 1524. He also supported efforts to [[The Roman Catholic Church and Colonialism|evangelize]] the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous people]] to Christianity and sponsored new explorations. He then spent the next seven years establishing peace among the Indians of Mexico and developing mines and farmlands. Cortés was one of the first Spaniards to attempt to grow [[sugar]] in Mexico and one of the first to import [[Atlantic slave trade|African slaves]] to early colonial Mexico. At the time of his death his estate contained at least 200 slaves who were either native Africans or of African descent. In 1523, the Crown (possibly influenced by Cortés' enemy, [[Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca|Bishop Fonseca]]sent a military force under the command of [[Juan de Garay]] to conquer and settle the northern part of Mexico, the region of [[Pánuco]]. This was another setback for Cortés who mentioned this in his fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies [[Diego Velázquez]], [[Diego Columbus]] and Bishop Fonseca as well as Juan Garay. The influence of Garay was effectively stopped by this appeal to the King who sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a fight. From 1524 to 1526, Cortés headed an expedition to [[Honduras]] where he defeated [[Cristóbal de Olid]], who had claimed Honduras as his own under the influence of the Governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez. Fearing that Cuauhtémoc might head an insurrection in Mexico, he brought him with him in Honduras and hanged him during the journey. Raging over Olid's treason, Cortés issued a decree to arrest Velázquez, whom he was sure was behind Olid's treason. This, however, only served to further estrange the Spanish Crown and the Council of Indies, both of which were already beginning to feel anxious about Cortés' rising power. Cortés's fifth letter to Charles V attempts to justify his conduct, concludes with a bitter attack on “various and powerful rivals and enemies” who have “obscured the eyes of your Majesty.”{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Unfortunately, the Holy Roman Emperor had little time for distant colonies (much of Charles's reign was taken up with [[Italian Wars|wars with France]], the [[Schmalkaldic League|German Protestants]] and the expanding [[Ottoman wars in Europe|Ottoman Empire]]), except insofar as they contributed to finance his wars. In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles V was attending to matters in his German domains and Spain was ruled by Bishop (later Pope) [[Adrian of Utrecht]], who functioned as regent. Velázquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint a commissioner with powers, (a ''[[Juez de residencia]]'', [[Luis Ponce de León (governor of New Spain)|Luis Ponce de León]]), to investigate Cortés's conduct and even arrest him. Cortés was once quoted as saying that it was "more difficult to contend against (his) own countrymen than against the Aztecs." Governor Diego Velázquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to undermine him in the Council of the Indies. A few days after Cortés' return from his expedition, Ponce de León suspended Cortés from his office of governor of New Spain. The Licentiate then fell ill and died shortly after his arrival, appointing [[Marcos de Aguilar]] as ''alcalde mayor''. The aged Aguilar also became sick and appointed [[Alonso de Estrada]] governor, who was confirmed in his functions by a royal decree in August 1527. Cortés, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the government. Estrada sent [[Diego de Figueroa]] to the south; but de Figueroa raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his end when the ship carrying these treasures sunk. Albornoz persuaded Alonso de Estrada to release Salazar and Chirinos. When Cortés complained angrily after one of his adherent's hand was cut off, Estrada ordered him exiled. Cortés sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to Emperor Charles V. ===First return to Spain (1528) === In 1528, Cortés returned to Spain to appeal to the justice of his master, Charles V. He presented himself with great splendor before the court. By this time Charles V had returned and Cortés forthrightly responded to his enemy's charges. Denying he had held back on gold due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more than the [[quinto]] (one-fifth) required. Indeed, he had spent lavishly to rebuild Tenochtitlán, damaged during the siege that brought down the Aztec empire. He was received by Charles with every distinction, and decorated with the [[order of Santiago]]. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young [[Spanish Empire]], Cortés was rewarded in 1529 by being named the ''"Marqués del Valle de [[Oaxaca]]"'' (Marquis of the Oaxaca Valley), a noble title and senorial estate which was passed down to his descendants until 1811. The Oaxaca Valley was one of the wealthiest region of New Spain, and Cortés had 23 000 [[vassal]]s. Although confirmed in his land holdings and vassals, he was not reinstated as governor and was never again given any important office in the administration of New Spain. During his travel to Spain, his property was mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators. He sided with local Indians in a lawsuit. The Indians documented the abuses in the [[Huexotzinco Codex]]. ===Return to Mexico=== Cortés returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honors, but with diminished power, a viceroy, [[Antonio de Mendoza]], having been entrusted in 1535 with the administration of civil affairs, although Cortés still retained military authority, with permission to continue his conquests. This division of power led to continual dissension, and caused the failure of several enterprises in which Cortés was engaged. On returning to Mexico, Cortés found the country in a state of anarchy. At a time when there was a strong suspicion in court circles of an intended rebellion by Cortés a charge was brought against him that cast a fatal blight upon his character and plans. He was accused of murdering his first wife. The proceedings of the investigation were kept secret. No report, either exonerating or condemning Cortés, was published. Had the Government declared him innocent, it would have greatly increased his popularity; had it declared him a criminal, a crisis would have been precipitated by the accused and his party. Silence was the only safe policy, but that silence is suggestive that grave danger was feared from his influence. After reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, Cortés retired to his estates at [[Cuernavaca]], about 30 miles (48&nbsp;km) south of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration. Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and 1541, Cortés quarreled with [[Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán]] and disputed the right to explore the territory that is today California with [[Antonio de Mendoza]], the first viceroy. In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico and discovered the [[Baja California peninsula]]. Cortés also spent time exploring the Pacific coast of Mexico. The [[Gulf of California]] was originally named the [[Sea of Cortes]] by its discoverer [[Francisco de Ulloa]] in 1539. This was the last major expedition by Cortés. ==Later life and death== ===Second return to Spain=== After his exploration of Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his angry civilians, who had brought many lawsuits against him (for debts, abuse of power, etc. On his return he was utterly neglected, and could scarcely obtain an audience. On one occasion he forced his way through a crowd that surrounded the emperor's carriage, and mounted on the footstep. The emperor, astounded at such audacity, demanded of him who he was. "I am a man," replied Cortés proudly, "who has given you more provinces than your ancestors left you cities." ===Expedition against Algiers=== The emperor finally permitted Cortés to join himself and his fleet commanded by [[Andrea Doria]] at the great expedition against [[Algiers]] in the [[Barbary Coast]] in 1541, which was then part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and was used as a base by the famous Turkish corsair [[Barbarossa Khair ad Din Pasha|Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha]] who was also the Admiral-in-Chief of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Fleet. During this unfortunate campaign, which was his last, Cortés was almost drowned in a storm that hit his fleet while he was pursuing Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who managed to defeat the fleet of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] for a second time after the 1538 [[Battle of Preveza]].<ref>[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~sarhaus/larimore02/suleiman.html Naval Battle of Preveza, 1538]</ref> ===Last years=== Having spent a great deal of his own money to finance expeditions, he was now heavily in debt. In February 1544 he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was given a royal runaround for the next three years. Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547. When he reached Seville, he was stricken with [[dysentery]]. He died in [[Castilleja de la Cuesta]], [[Seville]] province, on December 2, 1547, from a case of [[pleurisy]] at age 62. Like [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]], he died a wealthy but embittered man. He left his many [[mestizo]] and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the "natural" status of three of his children (legitimizing them in the eyes of the church), including [[Martín Cortés|Martin]], the son he had with Doña Marina (also known as La Malinche), said to be his favorite. After his death his body has been moved more than eight times by several reasons. On the 4 of December of 1547 he was buried in the mausoleum of the Duke of Medina in the church of San Isidoro del Campo, Sevilla. Three years later (1550) due the space was required by the duke, his body was moved to the altar of Santa Catarina in the same church. In his testament, Cortés asked his body to be buried in the monastery he had orderd to by build in Coyoacan in México, ten years after his death, but the monastery was never built. So in 1566, his body was sent to New Spain and buried in the church of "San Francisco de Texcoco", where his mother and one of his sisters were buried. In 1629 died "don Pedro Cortés fourth "Marquez del Valle" his last male descendent, so the viceroy decided to move the bones of Cortés along his descendant to the Franciscan church in México. This was delayed by nine years, while his body stayed in the main room of the palace of the viceroy. Eventually it was moved the Sagrario of Franciscan church, where stayed for 87 years. In 1716 it was move to another place in the same church. In 1794 his bones were moved to the "Hospital de Jesus" (founded by Cortés), where a statue by Tolsa and a mausoleum were made. There was a public ceremony and all the churches in the city rang their bells. In 1823, after the independence of México, it seemed it was imminent his body would be desecrated, so the mausoleum was removed, the satue and the coat of arms were set to Italy, to Palermo to be protected by the duke of Terranova. The bones were hidden ,and everyone tought the had been sent out of México. In 1836 his bones were moved to another place in the same building. It was not until 1947, when they were rediscovered thanks to the discovery of a secret document by [[Lucas Alaman]]. His body put in charge of the "Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia" INAH, it was autentified and then restored to the same place, this time with a bronce incription and his coat of arms [http://www.motecuhzoma.de/huesos.html]. In 1981, when a copy of the bust by Tolsa was put in the church, there was a failed attempt to destroy his bones. ==Children== Natural children of Hernán Cortés: *''don'' Martín Cortés, son of ''doña'' Marina (La Malinche), called the ''First Mestizo''; about him was written ''The New World of Martín Cortés''; married ''doña'' Bernaldina de Porras and had two children: **''doña'' Ana Cortés **''don'' Fernando Cortés, Principal [[Judge]] of [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]]. Descendants of this line are alive today in Mexico. * Martín - the legitimate son of Cortés and Catalina Juárez Marcaida *''don'' Luis, son of ''doña'' Antonia Hermosillo *''doña'' Catalina Pizarro, daughter of his relative ''doña'' Leonor Pizarro *''doña'' Leonor, daughter of ''doña'' Isabel de Moctezuma, the oldest legitimate daughter of Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin *''doña'' María Cortés de Moctezuma, married to ''don'' Juan de Tolosa, a [[miner]], daughter of Mexica (Aztec) princess Tecuichpotzin Xocoyotzin, born in [[Tenochtitlan]] on July 11, 1510 and died on July 9, 1550, daughter of Moctezuma II Xocoyotzin and wife ''doña'' María Miahuaxuchitl He married twice: firstly in [[Cuba]] to Catalina Juárez Marcaida, who died at [[Coyoacán]] in 1522, without issue, and secondly in 1529 to ''doña'' Juana Ramírez de Arellano de Zúñiga, daughter of ''don'' Carlos Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Count of Aguilar and wife the Countess ''doña'' Juana de Zúñiga, and had: *''don'' Luis Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, who died a child in [[Texcoco, Mexico|Texcoco]] in 1530 *''doña'' Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, who died a short time after birth in 1531 *''don'' Martín Cortés y Ramírez de Arellano, 2nd Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, born in [[Cuernavaca]] in 1532, married at [[Nalda]] on February 24, 1548 his twice cousin once removed ''doña'' Ana Ramírez de Arellano y Ramírez de Arellano and had issue, currently extinct in male line *''doña'' María Cortés de Zúñiga, born between 1533 and 1536, married to ''don'' Luis de Quiñones y Pimentel, 5th Count of [[Luna, Zaragoza|Luna]] *''doña'' Catalina Cortés de Zúñiga, born between 1533 and 1536, died unmarried in [[Sevilla]] after the funeral of her father *''doña'' Juana Cortés de Zúñiga, born between 1533 and 1536, married [[Don (honorific)|Don]] Fernando Enríquez de Ribera y Portocarrero, 2nd Duke of [[Alcalá de los Gazules]], 3rd Marquess of [[Tarifa]] and 6th Count of [[Los Molares]], and had issue ==Disputed interpretation of the life of Cortés== There are relatively few sources to the early life of Cortés; his fame arose from his participation in the conquest of Mexico and it was only after this that people became interested in reading and writing about him. Probably the best source is his letters to the king which he wrote during the campaign in Mexico, but they are written with the specific purpose of putting his efforts in a favourable light and so must be read critically. Another main source is the biography written by Cortés' private chaplain [[Lopez de Gómara]], which was written in Spain several years after the conquest. Gómara never set foot in the Americas and knew only what Cortés had told him, and he had an affinity for knightly romantic stories which he incorporated richly in the biography. The third major source is written as a reaction to what its author calls "the lies of Gomara", the account written by the Conquistador [[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]] does not paint Cortés as a romantic hero but rather tries to emphasize that also Cortés' men should be remembered as important participants in the undertakings in Mexico. In the years following the conquest also more critical accounts of the Spanish arrival in Mexico were written. The [[Dominican friar]] [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] wrote his ''[[A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies]]'' in which he raised strong accusations of brutality, and heinous violence towards the Indians against the conquistadors in general and Cortés in particular. The accounts of the conquest given in the [[Florentine Codex]] by the Franciscan [[Bernardino de Sahagún]] and his native informants are also less than flattering towards Cortés. The result of the scarce sources to the life of Cortés has been sharp divisions in the description of Cortés' personality and a tendency to describe him as either a vicious and ruthless person or a noble and honorable cavalier. ===Cortés's representations in México=== In México there are few representations of Cortés. However, many landmarks still bear his name, from the castle in the city of Cuernavaca to some street names throughout the republic. The only authentic monuments are in Mexico City at the pass between the volcanoes [[Iztaccíhuatl]] and [[Popocatépetl]] where Cortés took his soldiers on their march to Mexico City. It is known as the [[Paso de Cortes]]. The muralist [[Diego Rivera]] painted several representation of him but the most famous, depicts him as a naked, powerful and ominous figure along with Malinche in a mural in the National Palace in México city. In 1981, president [[Lopez Portillo]] tried to bring Cortés to public recognition. First, he made public a copy of the bust of Cortés made by [[Manuel Tolsá]] in the [[Hospital de Jesús Nazareno]] with an official ceremony, but soon a nationalist group tried to destroy it, so it had to be taken out ot the public. Today the copy of bust is in the "Museo Nacional de Historia" in an obscure corner while the original is in Nápoles, Italy, in the Villa Pignatelli. Later, another monument, known as "Monumento al Mestizaje" by Julián Martínez y M. Maldonado (1982) was commissioned by Lopez Portillo to be put in the "Zocalo" (Main square) of Coyoacan, near the place of his country house, but it had to be removed to a little known park, the Jardín Xicoténcatl, Barrio de San Diego Churubusco. The statue depicts Cortés, Malinche and their son. There is another statue by Sebastián Aparicio, in Cuernavaca, was in a hotel "El casino de la selva". Cortés is barely recognizable, so it sparked little interest. The hotel was closed to made a commercial center, and the statue was put out of public display by Costco the builder of the commercial center. ==Writings - The ''Cartas de Relación''== Cortés' personal account of the conquest of Mexico is narrated in his five letters addressed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. These five letters, or ''cartas de relación'', are Cortés' only surviving writings. See "Letters and Dispatches of Cortés," translated by George Folsom (New York, 1843); Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico" (Boston, 1843); and Sir Arthur Helps's "Life of Hernando Cortes" (London, 1871). [http://www.virtualology.com/virtualmuseumofhistory/hallofexplorers/HERNANDOCORTES.COM/] As one specialist describes them... <blockquote>"The ''Cartas de relación'' have enjoyed an unequaled popularity among students of the [[Spanish Conquest of Mexico|Conquest of Mexico]]. Cortés was a good writer. His letters to the emperor, on the conquest, deserve to be classed among the best Spanish documents of the period. They are, of course, coloured so as to place his own achievements in relief, but, withal, he keeps within bounds and does not exaggerate, except in matters of Indian civilization and the numbers of population as implied by the size of the settlements. Even there he uses comparatives only, judging from outward appearances and from impressions. Historians, sociologists, and political scientists use them to glean information about the Aztec empire and the clash between the European and Indian cultures. However, as early as the sixteenth century doubt has been cast on the historicity of these Conquest accounts. It is generally accepted that Cortés does not write a true “history,” but rather combines history with fiction. That is to say, in his narrative Cortés manipulates reality in order to achieve his overarching purpose of gaining the favor of the king. Cortés applies the classical rhetorical figure of evidentia as he crafts a powerful narrative full of “vividness” that moves the reader and creates a heightened sense of realism in his letters."{{Fact|date=August 2007}}</blockquote> His first letter is lost, and the one from the municipality of Vera Cruz has to take its place. It was published for the first time in volume IV of "Documentos para la Historia de España", and subsequently reprinted. The first ''carta de relación'' is available online at [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/IbrAmerTxt/IbrAmerTxt-idx?type=header&byte=1042389&q1=&q2=&q3=] The ''Segunda Carta de Relacion'', bearing the date of October 30, 1520, appeared in print at [[Seville]] in 1522. The "Carta tercera", May 15, 1522, appeared at Seville in 1523. The fourth, October 20, 1524, was printed at [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in 1525. The fifth, on the Honduras expedition, is contained in volume IV of the ''Documentos para la Historia de España''. The important letter mentioned in the text has been published under the heading of ''Carta inédita de Cortés'' by [[Ycazbalceta]]. A great number of minor documents, either by Cortés or others, for or against him, are dispersed through the voluminous collection above cited and through the ''Colección de Documentos de Indias'', as well as in the ''Documentos para la Historia de México'' of Ycazbalceta. There are a number of reprints and translations of Cortés's writings into various languages. [http://academics.georgiasouthern.edu/international/pages/SECOLAS/CAFryer.htm] [http://coloquio.com/famosos/cortes.htm] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04397a.htm] ==Ancestors== <div style="clear: both; width: 100%; padding: 0; text-align: left; border: none;" class="NavFrame"> <div style="background: #ff99ff; text-align: center; border: 1px solid #000000" class="NavHead">'''Ancestors of Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca''' </div> <div class="NavContent" style="display:none;"> <center>{{ahnentafel-compact5 |style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%; |border=1 |boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0; |boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc; |boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9; |boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc; |boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe; |1= 1. '''Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca''' |2= 2. Martín Cortés de Monroy |3= 3. Catalina Pizarro Altamirano |4= 4. Rodrigo or Ruy Fernández de Monroy |5= 5. María Cortés |6= 6. Diego Altamirano |7= 7. Leonor Sánchez Pizarro Altamirano |8= 8. [[Rodrigo de Monroy y Almaraz, 5th Lord of Monroy]] |9= 9. Mencía de Orellana y Carvajal |10= 10. Diego de La Cueva |11= 11. María Cortés |12= 12. Juan Altamirano |13= 13. María de Vivero |14= 14. Martín Pizarro de Hinojosa |15= 15. Isabel Rodríguez Altamirano |16= 16. [[Hernán de Monroy y Rodríguez de las Varillas, 4th Lord of Monroy]] |17= 17. [[Isabel de Almaraz, Lady of Almaraz]] |18= 18. Hernándo Alfonso de Orellana |19= 19. Juana González de Carvajal |20= 20. |21= 21. |22= 22. |23= 23. |24= 24. |25= 25. |26= 26. |27= 27. |28= 28. Fernando or Hernándo Alonso de Hinojosa |29= 29. Teresa Martínez Pizarro |30= 30. Benito Hernández Altamirano |31= 31. Isabel Rodríguez de Aguilar }}</center> </div></div> ==See also== * [[History of Mexico]] * [[Quetzalcoatl]] * [[Spanish Conquest of Mexico]] * [[Siege of Tenochtitlan]] * [[Cortez the Killer]] a song by Neil Young about him. * [[Barbary pirates]] * [[Ottoman-Habsburg wars]] ==External links== * [http://www.nndb.com/people/444/000092168/ Biography of Hernán Cortés] * [http://www.motecuhzoma.de/change.html The change of Hernán Cortés' self-image by means of the conquest] * [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/cortes/ Hernando Cortes on the Web] &ndash; web directory with thumbnail galleries * [http://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortes/cortes_flat.html Conquistadors, with Michael Wood] &ndash; website for 2001 PBS documentary * [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/IbrAmerTxt Ibero-American Electronic Text Series] presented online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. * [http://hernan-cortes.com Hernan Cortes - The Conquistador of the Aztecs]; Informational Link Blog about the History of Cortes, the Aztecs along with a variety of sources, pictures and educational resources. * [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cortes.htm Latin American studies center], material on Cortés *''Fernand Cortez'', opera by Gaspare Spontini, [[Jean-Paul Penin]] [http://www.multimania.com/fcortez] </div>

AcademicSysop foobar Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 2009-06-19T23:25:05Z 2009-06-19T23:25:05 2009-06-19T23:25:05Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Nofootnotes|article|date=October 2007}} {{Copyedit|article|date=January 2008}} [[Image:Coronado-Remington.jpg|thumb|right|Coronado Sets Out to the North, by [[Frederic Remington]], 1861-1909]] '''Francisco Vázquez de Coronado y Luján''' (1510 &ndash; 22 September 1554) was a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistador]], who visited [[New Mexico]] and other parts of what are now the southwestern [[United States]] between 1540 and 1542. Coronado had hoped to conquer the mythical [[Seven Cities of Gold]]. ==Background== Coronado was born in [[Salamanca]], [[Spain]], the brother of Diego Vásquez and 2nd son of Juan Vásquez de Coronado y Sosa de Ulloa (d. 1532), 5. Señor de Coquilla and 5. Señor de la Torre de Juan Vásquez, [[Majorat]]s of his family, ''[[Corregidor (position)|Corregidor]]'' of [[Segovia]] and [[Jerez de la Frontera]] and [[Captain General]] of the [[Frontier]], [[Prefect]] of [[Granada]], who was at the service of the [[Catholic Kings]] and [[Charles I of Spain]], ''[[Regidor]]'' of [[Salamanca]] and Founder of the [[Majorat]] of his House on December 16, 1522, and wife Isabel de Luján (b. [[Madrid]]), [[Dame]] of the Queen [[Isabel I of Castile]]. He was an uncle of [[Juan Vázquez de Coronado y Anaya]], Conqueror, first [[Governor]] and first ''[[Adelantado]]'' of [[Costa Rica]]. <ref> [http://genforum.genealogy.com/coronado/messages/30.html Origin of Vázquez de Coronado family] </ref> The most distinguished [[scion]] of his family, Coronado went to [[Mexico]] in 1535 at about age 25, with the entourage of [[Viceroy]] [[Antonio de Mendoza]] his partner and a rising star. In Mexico, he married Beatriz de Estrada, called ''the Saint'' (''la Santa''), sister of Leonor de Estrada, ancestor of the de Alvarado family and daughter of [[Treasurer]] and [[Governor]] Alonso de Estrada y Hidalgo, Lord of [[Picón]], and wife Marina Flores Gutiérrez de la Caballería, from a [[converso]] [[Sefardi Jews|Jewish]] family. <ref> [http://pages.prodigy.net/bluemountain1/estrada1.htm estrada1]</ref> Coronado inherited a large portion of a Mexican estate from Beatriz and had five children by her an they also had 5 more children later.  ==Mounting the expedition== Coronado was the conqueror and Governor of the Kingdom of [[Nueva Galicia]] (New Galicia, a province of New Spain located northwest of Mexico and comprising the contemporary [[Mexican state]]s of [[Jalisco]], [[Sinaloa]] and [[Nayarit]]). In 1539, he dispatched Friar [[Marcos de Niza]] and [[Estevanico]], a survivor of the [[Narváez expedition]], on an expedition north from [[Compostela, Nayarit||Compostela]], in present state of [[Nayarit]], towards [[New Mexico]]. When Marcos de Niza returned, he told about a city of vast wealth, a golden city called [[Quivira and Cíbola|Cíbola]], and that Estevanico had been killed by the Zuni citizens of Cíbola. Though he did not claim to have entered the city of Cíbola, he reported that the city stood on a high hill, that it was made of gold, and that he could see the Pacific Ocean off to the west. Based on this report, Coronado assembled an expedition with two components. One component carried the bulk of the expedition's supplies, and traveled by sea under the leadership of Hernando de Alarcon.<ref>Winship. P. 39-40</ref> The other component traveled by land, along the trail Friar Marcos de Niza had used. Coronado and Viceroy [[Antonio de Mendoza]] invested large sums of their own money in the venture. Mendoza, Coronado's friend and fellow investor, appointed him as the commander of the expedition with the mission to find the seven golden cities and take their gold. This is the reason why he pounded his wife's estates and was lended 70,000 more pesos. "In the autumn of 1539," Viceroy Mendoza orders Melchor Diaz, the commander of San Miguel de [[Culiacán]], to investigate Friar de Niza's findings and on November 17, 1539 Diaz departs on the trail to CÍbola, with fifteen horsemen.<ref name="autogenerated1">Winship. P. 38</ref> At the ruins of Chichilticalli he turns around because of "snows and fierce winds from across the wilderness".<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Diaz encounters Coronado before he has departed San Miguel de Culiacán, and reports that initial investigations into Friar de Niza's report disprove the existence of bountiful land. Diaz's report is delivered to Viceroy Mendoza on March 20, 1540.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Second hand anecdotal accounts of the existence of Cíbola are facts are verifiable, yet the existence of wealthy cities are not supported, and Coronado tells him not to let this news reach the ears of the men in his expedition. Coronado set out from Compostela in [[February 23]] [[1540]] at the head of a large expedition composed of 335 Spaniards, 1300 natives, four Franciscan monks (the most notable of whom were [[Juan de Padilla]] and the newly appointed [[provincial superior]] of the Franciscan order in the New World, Marcos de Niza), and several slaves, both natives and Africans<ref>Winship. P. 32-4, 37</ref> [[Image:Coronado expedition.jpg|thumb|left|600px|The Coronado Expedition 1540&ndash;1542]] He followed the Sinaloan coast northward, keeping the [[Sea of Cortez]] to his left until he reached the northernmost Spanish settlement, San Miguel de Culiacán, about March 28 1540, whereupon he rested his expedition before they began trekking the inland trail on April 22 1540.<ref>Winship. P. 38, 40</ref> Aside from Diaz's mission to verify Fray de Niza's report he also took notice of the forage and food situation along the trail, and he reported that the land along the route would not be able to support a large concentrated body of soldiers and animals. Coronado decides to divide his expedition into small groups and time their departures so that grazing lands and water holes along the trail could recover. At intervals along the trail, Coronado established camps and garrisoned soldiers to keep the supply route open, for example in September, 1540 Melchior Diaz along with "seventy or eighty of the weakest and least reliable men in Coronado's army remained at the town of San Hieronimo, in the valley of Corzones or Hearts.<ref>Winship. P. 60</ref> Once the scouting and planning was done, Coronado led the first group of soldiers up the trail. They were horsemen and foot soldiers who were able to travel quickly, while the main bulk of the expedition would set out, at intervals, later. After "leaving Culiacan on April 22, Coronado followed the coast, "bearing off to the left," as Mota Padilla says, by an extremely rough way, to the Cinaloa. The configuration of the country made it necessary to follow up the valley of this stream until he could find a passage across the mountains to the course of the Yaquimi. He traveled alongside this stream for some distance, then crossed to Sonora river. The Sonora was followed nearly to its source before a pass was discovered. On the southern side of the mountains he found a stream - the Nexpa, he calls it which may have been either the Santa Cruz or the Pedro of modern maps. The party followed down this river valley until they reached the edge of the wilderness, where, as Friar Marcos had described it to them, they found Chichilticalli.<ref>Winship. P. 40-1</ref> Chichilticalli is in southern Arizona in the Sulfur Springs Valley within the bend of the Dos Cabeza and [[Chiricahua Mountains]] which fits the chronicle of Laus Deo description which reports that "at Chichilticalli the country changes its character again and the spiky vegetation ceases. The reason is that the gulf reaches as far up as this place, and the mountain chain changes its direction at the same time that the coast does. Here they had to cross and pass the mountains in order to get into the level country".<ref>Winship. P. 143</ref> Though not address they had to have crossed the [[Gila River]], then the [[Mogollón Rim]] which generally runs in an east west direction as opposed to the general north-south orientation of the western mountains of Mexico and the United States, and finally the [[Little Colorado River]]. Then, they followed the [[Zuni River]] drainage into the Cíbola region, in the western part of present-day New Mexico. There he met a crushing disappointment. Cíbola was nothing like the great golden city that Marcos had described. Instead, it was just a complex of simple [[pueblo]]s constructed by the [[Zuni]] Indians. The soldiers considered killing Marcos for his mendacious imagination, but Coronado intervened and sent him back to [[Mexico]] in disgrace. ==Conquest of Cíbola== Coronado traversed Arizona's [[Mogollón Rim]] and from the head waters of the Little Colorado he continued on until he came to the [[Zuni River]]. He followed the Zuni until he found the region inhabited by the [[Zuni (tribe)|Zunis]]. The members of the expedition were almost starving and demanded entrance into the village of [[Hawikuh Ruins|Hawikuh]]. The natives refused, and denied the expedition entrance to the village or trade. Coronado and his frustrated soldiers entered Hawikuh on Coronado's demands when the Spanish requested intelligence and resources. This constitutes the extent of what can be called the "Conquest of Cíbola." During the battle at Hawikuh, Coronado was injured and he had to stay with the Zuni while healing. From the knowledge gathered during this time he sent out several more scouting expeditions. The first scouting expedition was led by [[Pedro de Tovar]]. This expedition headed to the Hopi villages, with the expectation that this region may contain the wealthy Cíbola. Upon arrival, the Spanish were denied entrance to the they cae across, and once again resorted to using force to enter. Afterwards the remaining villages dared to fight the Spanish, but held a meeting and decided not to. Materially, the Hopi region was just as poor as the Zuni, but the Spanish did find out that a large river (the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado]]) lay in the west. The scouting party returned to Zuni territory and reported their findings. Coronado sent another scouting expedition led by [[Garcia Lopez de Cárdenas]] to find the Colorado River. This expedition returned to the [[Hopi]] territory to acquire scouts and supplies that could be used to find this river. Members of this expedition reached the [[Grand Canyon]] and the Colorado River, and became the first Europeans to see the magnificent canyon. After trying and failing to climb down into the Grand Canyon to reach the river below, the expedition reported that they would not be able to use the Colorado to link up with their ships. After this, the main body of the expedition began its journey to the next populated center of pueblos, which were located along the [[Rio Grande]] River in [[New Mexico]]. The Hopis probably purposely mislead the Spanish (already their enemies) by leading them, by a circuitous route, to a high, dry overlook on the Grand Canyon rim. They themselves used far easier, shorter routes from Hopi to the river. The Hopi guides were likely instructed not to volunteer any information of value to the Spanish parties. If this was the Hopi intent, the ruse worked. <ref> Micheal F. Anderson, ''Living at the Edge'', 1998, Grand Canyon Association. ISBN 0938216554 </ref> {{Spanish colonization of the Americas}} ==Exploration of the Colorado River== Three leaders affiliated with the Coronado Expedition were able to reach the Colorado River. The first was [[Hernando de Alarcón]], then [[Melchior Díaz]] and lastly Don Garcia Lopez de Cardenas. Alarcón's fleet was tasked to carry supplies and to establish contact with the main body of Coronado's expedition, but was unable to do so because of the extreme distance to Cibola. He traveled up the Colorado river until the river entered the lower half of the Grand Canyon. In this exploration he hauled some supplies for Coronado, but eventually he buried them with a note in a bottle. Melchior Díaz was sent down from Cibola by Coronado take charge of the camp of Corazones and to establish contact with the fleet. Soon after arriving at the camp he set out from the valley of Corazones in Sonora and traveled overland in a north/northwesterly direction until he arrived at the junction of the [[Colorado River]] and [[Gila River]]. There the local natives, probably the CocoMaricopa (see Seymour 2007b), told him that Alarcón's sailors had buried supplies and left a note in a bottle. The supplies were retrieved and the note stated that Alarcón's men had rowed up the river as far as they could, searching in vain for the Coronado expedition. They had given up and decided to return to their departure point because worms were eating holes in their ships. Díaz named the river the "firebrand" river because the natives used fire brands to keep their body warm in the winter. Díaz died on the trip back to the camp in the valley of the Corazones. Don Garcia Lopez de Cardenas saw the Colorado River from the rim of the South Rim of the Grand Canyon while looking for a route that would connect them with Alarcón's fleet. ==The Tiguex War== [[Hernando de Alvarado]] was sent to the east, and found several villages around the [[Rio Grande]]. Coronado set up his winter quarters in one of them, [[Tiguex]], which is across the river from present-day [[Bernalillo]] near [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]]. During the winter of 1540-41, his army found themselves in conflicts with the Rio Grande natives, conflicts which led to the brutal [[Tiguex War]]. This war resulted in the destruction of the Tiguex pueblos and the death of hundreds of Indians. ==The search for Quivira== A Native American, whom Coronado called "The Turk," had told him about [[Quivira and Cíbola|Quivira]], a rich country in the northwest. Deciding to look for Quivira, he took the Turk as his guide and traversed the [[Llano Estacado]] and what is now the [[Texas Panhandle]]. However, Coronado suspected the Turk was lying about the route and executed him. Other guides led him further north to Quivira, and he reached a village near present-day [[Lindsborg, Kansas]]. But his disappointment was repeated: the Quivira people (later known as [[Wichita (tribe)|Wichita]]) were not rich at all. The village consisted mostly of thatched huts, and not even small amounts of gold could be found. Coronado returned to Tiguex, where his main force had remained behind. Here he spent another winter. Near present day [[Dodge City, Kansas]], Coronado held the first Christian mass in the interior of North America. The site of this mass is currently marked by a large concrete cross called Coronado's Cross to commemorate the event, which took place on June 29, 1541. In 1542 Coronado was ordered back to central Mexico so that his troops could help put down the [[The Mixtón Rebellion]]. He left with two of the Franciscan missionaries who insisted that they stay. Coronado returned to Mexico by the same route he had come. When he arrived in Mexico, the Mixtón Rebellion was already over. Only 100 of his men made it back. The expedition was a complete failure, and though he remained governor of [[Nueva Galicia]] until 1544, the expedition forced him into bankruptcy. Coronado retired to [[Mexico City]], where he died on September 22 1554. ==Legacy== :''Also see'' [[Coronado (disambiguation)]] [[Image:Coronoado Heights.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Castle on top of [[Coronado Heights]] in Kansas]] Dodge City (KS) Community College's nickname is the Conquistadors, in honor of Coronado's expedition, which passed through the future Dodge City area in 1541. There is a large hill just northwest of Lindsborg, Kansas that is called [[Coronado Heights]]. The former owner of the land built a small castle at the lofty summit to commemorate Coronado's 1541 visit to the area. The castle and the area around it is now a public camping and recreation area. The soft sandstone rocks at the peak of the hill are covered in the names of past visitors to the area. In 1952, the United States established [[Coronado National Memorial]] near [[Sierra Vista, Arizona]] to commemorate his expedition. [[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]] references a [[Cross of Coronado]]. According to the film, this gold cross, discovered in a Utah cave system, was given to Coronado by [[Hernán Cortés]] in 1521. It is unclear if any such item ever existed. In addition to this, when Indy captures the cross from robbers aboard a ship off the coast of Portugal, the name of the ship can be seen as 'Coronado'. In 1992, underground found footage filmmaker Craig Baldwin made the film [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105037/ "O No Coronado!"] detailing the expedition of Coronado through the use of recycled images from Westerns, Conquest films and The Lone Ranger television series. In the Western [[video game]] [[Gun (video game)|Gun]], Coronado's fabled golden cross is a central part of the plot. The game's [[villain]], Thomas Magruder, stops at nothing to retrieve the cross he believes leads to Quivira. In addition, Coronado's "second search" for Quivira in 1542 is shown in a graphic prologue at the beginning of the game; however, Coronado and his associates are slaughtered by the Wichita tribe. In the cutscene showing this , Coronado was portrayed as a priest , but in reality he was a soldier. There is a [[shopping mall]] in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]], that bears his name: Coronado Mall. A Southwestern-themed hotel in [[Orlando, Florida]] is named the [http://www.disney.ca/vacations/disneyworld/II/B/5/ Coronado Springs Resort]. High schools in [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]] and [[Lubbock, Texas]], [[Scottsdale, Arizona]], [[Henderson, Nevada]] and [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]] bear his name: Coronado High School. A middle school in Kansas City, Kansas is named after Coronado: Coronado Middle School. A K-8 school in [[Gilbert, Arizona]] bears his name as well: Coronado Elementary School. The [[Coronado National Forest]] is located in southeastern [[Arizona]], named in honor of the explorer. At [[Palo Duro Canyon]], Texas, (southeast of present day Amarillo, Texas) on May 23 1541, his group celebrated the first [[Thanksgiving]] in [[North America]], after finding food supplies. There is also a small "island" (it is really a peninsula) near [[San Diego]] named [[Coronado, California|Coronado]]. Most visitors cross the [[Coronado Bridge]] to get there. ==External links== {{commonscat|Francisco Vázquez de Coronado}} *[http://chichilticale.com/ The Search for Chichilticale] *[http://texashistory.unt.edu/permalink/meta-pth-3161 ''The journey of Coronado, 1540-1542, from the city of Mexico to the Grand Canon of the Colorado and the buffalo plains of Texas, Kansas and Nebraska, as told by himself and his followers''], written by Pedro de Castañeda and translated by George Parker Winship, 1922 publication, hosted by the [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ Portal to Texas History]. *[http://texashistory.unt.edu/young/educators/coronado/index.shtml Coronado: Misfortune's Explorer] Primary Source Adventure, a lesson plan hosted by [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ The Portal to Texas History] *[http://skyways.lib.ks.us/orgs/fordco/coronado.html Coronado Cross] June 29, 1541, Ford County, KS *[http://members.tripod.com/~GaryFelix/index5D.htm List of Men Who Were Part of the Coronado Expedition]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Estevanico the moor 2009-06-19T23:20:05Z 2009-06-19T23:20:05 2009-06-19T23:20:05Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> '''Estevanico''' (c. 1500 – 1539) (also known as "Mustafa Zemmouri", "Black Stephen", "Esteban", "Esteban the Moor", "Estevan", "Estebanico", "Stephen the Black", "Stephen the Moor", and "Little Stephen") of North African origins, possibly from [[Azemmour]], [[Morocco]]. He is mentioned in various 16th century [[Southwestern United States|Southwestern]] [[United States]] expeditionary logs as a slave servant in the Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca's party. ==Early life== Estevanico was sold into slavery to the Portuguese in the town of Azemmour, a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] enclave on [[Morocco]]'s [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast, in 1513, at an early age. It is unclear if he was born in Senegal of black African parents or was brought to Azemmour from west Africa by the trans-Saharan slave trade. He was converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]. He was sold in 1520 to Andrés Dorantes de Carranza, a [[Spanish nobility|Spanish nobleman]] with whom he developed close ties. ==American explorer== Estevanico traveled with Dorantes to [[Hispaniola]] and [[Cuba]] on Pánfilo de Narváez's ill-fated [[Narváez expedition|expedition]] of 1527 to conquer [[Florida]]; in doing so Estevanico became the first person born in Africa known to have set foot in what is now the [[continental United States]]. He and Dorantes were two of the expedition's four survivors, and had sailed with others on makeshift rafts in an attempt to reach [[Mexico]]. The group was shipwrecked on [[Galveston Island]] and most of the men either drowned, starved, or were killed by natives; by 1533 only Estevanico, Andrés Dorantes de Carranza, [[Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]], and Alonso del Castillo Maldonado survived. The four spent years enslaved by the Ananarivo of the Louisiana Gulf Islands, but they eventually escaped into the American interior, contacting other [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes along the way. The party traversed the continent as far as present-day southeastern [[Arizona]], and through the [[Sonoran Desert]] to the region of [[Sinaloa]] in [[New Spain]] (present-day [[Mexico]]), where they were reunited with their countrymen. In 1539, Estevanico was one of the four who would accompany [[Marcos de Niza]] as a guide in search of the fabled [[Seven Cities of Cibola]], preceding [[Francisco Vásquez de Coronado|Coronado]]. However, the others were struck ill and Estevanico continued alone, opening up what is now New Mexico and Arizona. He was killed at the [[Zuni]] village of [[Hawikuh]] (in present-day [[New Mexico]]); the tribe regarded him with mistrust, partially because his medicine gourd was trimmed with feathers from an [[owl]], a bird that symbolized death to the Zuni. ==Legends== It is said that Estevanico was a remarkable [[Polyglot (person)|polyglot]] and that he was able to learn, in a matter of weeks, the languages of the Native Americans. It is also said that he was accepted as a deity by some Native American tribes because of his knowledge of herbs and medicines. It has been hypothesized that Esteban was not, in fact, killed by the Zunis, but rather kicked out of their village after being imprisoned. He may have then been hidden by the Pimas, who held him in high regard. For most historians, however, the eye-witness accounts of various associates, and the lack of references to Estevanico in later accounts is proof enough of the explorer's death. ==External links== *[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/EE/fes8.html Estevanico entry] at the [[Handbook of Texas]] *[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/explorers/page/e/estevanico.shtml Estevanico entry at enchantedlearning.com]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Frederick Cook 2009-06-19T22:37:30Z 2009-06-19T22:37:30 2009-06-19T22:37:30Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> '''Dr. Frederick Albert Cook''' ([[June 10]], [[1865]] &ndash; [[August 5]] [[1940]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[explorer]] and [[medical doctor|physician]], noted for his claim of having reached the [[North Pole]] on April 21, 1908, a year before [[Robert Peary]] claimed to, April 6, 1909.<ref>Henderson, B. 2009, pp. 58-69</ref> ==Life== [[Image:Frederick Cook2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Frederick Cook on South Michigan Avenue in [[Chicago]]]] Cook was born in Hortonville, [[New York]]. His parents were Dr. Theodore A. Koch and Magdalena Koch (''nee'' Long), recent [[Germany|German]] immigrants to the [[USA]]. Cook attended [[Columbia University]] and subsequently [[New York University]], from which he received his [[M.D.]] in 1890. In 1889 he married Libby Forbes, who died in childbirth in 1890. On his 37th birthday he married Marie Fidele Hunt; they had one daughter, Helene. In 1923 they were [[divorce]]d. ===Early expeditions=== Cook was the [[surgery|surgeon]] on [[Robert Peary]]'s 1891-92 [[Arctic]] expedition, and on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897-99 led by [[Adrien de Gerlache]]. He contributed greatly to saving the lives of the crew when their ship (the ''Belgica'') was ice-bound during the winter. A fellow crew-member was [[Norway|Norwegian]] explorer [[Roald Amundsen]], with whom he established a friendship and life-long relationship of mutual respect. In 1898, during this expedition, Cook visited [[Tierra del Fuego]], where he met [[Thomas Bridges (Anglican missionary)|Thomas Bridges]] shortly before his death. As a result of that meeting, Cook brought back the manuscript of Bridges' [[Yaghan language|Yamana]] dictionary, and several years later acquiesced in the attempted publication of the dictionary as his own work. In 1903 Cook led an expedition to [[Mount McKinley]], which resulted in his circumnavigation of the Denali range. He would subsequently make a second expedition in 1906, and claim to have made the first ascent of that mountain (this claim is discussed at length below). ===The Arctic Club and The Explorers Club=== Dr. Cook was a founding member of two New York-based clubs: the Arctic Club (1894-1913) and The Explorers Club (1904-present). In 1907-1908 Cook served as the second President of The Explorers Club. ==The 1906 Mt. McKinley Climb== [[Image:Frederick Cook.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Frederick Cook in arctic gear]] Cook claimed to have achieved the first summit of Mount McKinley in September 1906, reaching the top with one other member of his expedition. Other members of the team (e. g., Belmore Browne), whom he had left lower on the mountain, expressed private doubts about this immediately. His claims were not publicly challenged however until the 1909 fight with Peary over which had first reached the North Pole, at which time it was publicly alleged by Peary's supporters that Cook's ascent of Mt. McKinley was fraudulent. Ed Barrill, Cook's sole companion during the 1906 climb, signed an affidavit in 1909 denying that they had reached the top. He was paid by Peary supporters to do so (Henderson, 2005) (a fact which Henderson claims was covered up and Bryce claims was never a secret), although Barrill had consistently until a month before asserted that he and Cook had reached the summit. Unlike Hudson Stuck in 1913 (''Ascent of Denali'', 1914, photograph opposite p.102) Cook took no photograph of the view from atop McKinley, and his photograph of what he claimed was the summit was found to have been taken of Fake Peak, a tiny peak 19 miles away. One expedition by the Mazama Club in 1910 reported that Cook's map departed abruptly from reality while the summit was still 10 miles distant, but another 1910 expedition allegedly verified much of Cook's account (Henderson, 2005).{{Fact|date=March 2008}} The validity of the latter claim may be weighed by comparing Cook's map of his alleged 1906 route versus reality, over the last 10 miles. Modern climber [[Bradford Washburn]] made it a personal mission to reveal the exact truth of Cook's 1906 claim. Washburn and Brian Okonek ultimately (1956-1995) were able to identify the location of every single photograph Cook took during his 1906 McKinley foray, including his "summit" photograph, and reproduce them. None were taken anywhere near the summit (and, as the thousands who have climbed McKinley subsequently can verify, Cook's descriptions of the summit ridge bear no resemblance to the actual mountain). Washburn showed that none of Cook's 1906 photos was taken past the "Gateway" (north end of the Great Gorge), 12 horizontal bee-line miles from McKinley and 3 miles below its top. Barrill's 1909 affidavit included a map correctly locating the [[Fake Peak]] of Cook's "summit" photo and showing that Cook and he had turned back at the Gateway. No evidence of Cook's presence between the Gateway and McKinley has ever been found: his photos' vistas, his two sketch maps' markers and peak-numberings for points attained, his compass bearings, his barometer readings, his route-map's accuracy, even his camp trash — though samples of all such evidences are found short of the Gateway. ==North Pole== [[Image:FCook Expedition.gif|thumb|right|A photo from Cook's 1909 arctic expedition, which he alleged was taken at or near the North Pole]] After the Mount McKinley expedition, Cook returned to the [[Arctic]] in 1907. He planned to attempt to reach the [[North Pole]], although his intention was not announced until August 1907, when he was already in the Arctic. He left [[Annoatok]], a small settlement in the north of [[Greenland]], in February 1908. Cook claimed that he reached the pole on [[April 22]], [[1908]] after traveling north from [[Axel Heiberg Island]], taking with him only two Inuit men, [[Ahwelah]] and [[Etukishook]]. On the journey south, he claimed to have been cut off from his intended route to Annoatok by open water. Living off local game, his party was forced to push south to Jones Sound, spending the open water season and part of the winter on [[Devon Island]]. From there they traveled north, eventually crossing [[Nares Strait]] to Annoatok on the Greenland side in the spring of 1909, allegedly almost dying of starvation during the journey. Cook and his two companions were gone from Annoatok for 14 months, and their whereabouts in that period is a matter of intense controversy. In the view of Canadian historian [[Pierre Berton]] (Berton, 2001), Cook's story of his trek around the Arctic islands is probably legitimate; others put more faith in the story told by Cook's companions to later investigators. It has been suggested that Cook’s account actually describes his attainment of [[Jules Verne]]’s "Pole du Froid" (Pole of Cold), which was much easier to reach and to locate than the North Pole (See Fake Peak, below). If so, Cook might have altered the geographical details of his journey south through the islands to mislead investigators and cover up this fictional and largely forgotten pole. This would account for the discrepancy between his account and that of his companions. There are striking similarities between Ahpellah and Etukishook's sketched route of their journey south and the route taken by the fictional shipwrecked explorers in Jules Verne's novel "The English at the North Pole". For example, the route the two Inuit traced on a map goes right over both the Pole of Cold and the wintering site of the fictional expedition, and both expeditions went to the same area of Jones Sound in hope of finding a whaling ship to take them to civilization. For details, see Osczevski (2003) "Frederick Cook and the Forgotten Pole". Cook's claim was initially widely believed. But it was disputed by Cook's now-rival polar explorer Robert Peary, who claimed to have reached the North Pole himself in April 1909. Cook initially congratulated Peary for his achievement, but Peary and his supporters launched a campaign to discredit Cook, even enlisting the aid of socially-prominent persons outside the field of science such as [[American football|football]] [[Coach (sport)|coach]] [[Fielding Yost]] (as related in [[Fred Russell]]'s 1943 book, ''I'll Go Quietly''). Cook never produced detailed original navigational records to substantiate his claim to have reached the North Pole. He claimed that his detailed records were part of his belongings contained in three boxes, which he left at Annoatok in April 1909 in the keeping of Harry Whitney, an American hunter who had travelled to Greenland with Peary the previous year. According to Cook's account, he was unable to bring back the boxes, because his two companions had returned to their village and there was insufficient manpower at Annoatok for a second sledge for the onward 700 mile journey south to [[Upernavik]]. When Whitney tried to bring Cook's belongings with him on his return to the USA on Peary's ship, Peary refused to allow them on board. So Whitney left Cook's boxes in a cache in Greenland. They were never found. Cook intermittently claimed he had kept copies of his sextant navigational data and in 1911 published some which have the incorrect solar diameter. Ahwelah and Etukishook, Cook's Inuit companions, gave seemingly conflicting details about where they had gone with him. The major conflicts have been resolved in the light of improved geographical knowledge. Whitney was convinced that they had reached the North Pole with Cook, but hesitant to be drawn into the controversy. The Peary expedition's people (primarily Matthew Henson, who had a working knowledge of their language, and George Borup, who did not) claimed that Ahwelah and Etukishook told them that they had traveled only a few days journey from land. A map allegedly drawn by Ahwelaw and Etukishook correctly located and accurately depicted then-unknown [[Meighen Island]], which strongly suggests that they visited it, as they claimed. For more detail see Bryce, 1997 and Henderson, 2005. The conflicting, and possibly dual fraudulent claims, of Cook and Peary prompted [[Roald Amundsen]] to take particularly extensive precautions in navigation during his South Pole expedition to leave no room for doubt concerning attainment of the pole. See [[Polheim]]. (Amundsen also had the advantage of traveling over an actual continent and was able to leave unmistakable evidence of his presence at the South Pole, whereas any ice on which Cook might or might not have camped would have drifted many miles in the year between the competing claims.) ==Failed reputation== [[Image:Cook Forest lawn.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Frederick Cook's final resting place]] [[Image:Cookash.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Frederick Cook's final resting place]] Cook's reputation never recovered, while Peary's North Pole claim was widely accepted for most of the 20th century. Cook spent the next few years defending his claim and attempting to sue writers who claimed that he had faked the trip. In 1922 he became involved in the Texas oil business. In 1923 he was convicted of using the mails to defraud by signing mailers which overstated the oil discovery prospects of his company, and was imprisoned until 1930. ([[Roald Amundsen]], who felt he owed his life to Cook's extrication of the ''Belgica'', visited several times.) It has been claimed (Henderson, 2005) that the sentence was considered excessive even by the district attorney, and that the judge was a friend of the Peary family. More to the point, the actual oil finds eventually ''exceeded'' the expectations outlined by Cook. He was [[pardon]]ed by [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in 1940, shortly before his death on [[August 5]] of that year. Cook is a major character in a fiction book, ''The Navigator of New York'', by [[Wayne Johnston (author)|Wayne Johnston]], published in 2003. In recent years Peary's account has encountered renewed criticism and skepticism (Rawlins, 1973; Berton, 2001; Henderson, 2005). Which man, if either, was first to reach the North Pole continues to be a matter of considerable controversy in the arena of popular publications, though among professionals Peary's North Pole claim is now generally believed and both of Cook's claims have been almost unanimously rejected for nearly a century. At the end of his 1911 book, Cook wrote: ''I have stated my case, presented my proofs. As to the relative merits of my claim, and Mr Peary's, place the two records side by side. Compare them. I shall be satisfied with your decision.'' Frederick Cook’s remains are at the Chapel of [[Forest Lawn Cemetery, Buffalo]]. ==External links== * [http://www.cookpolar.org/ Frederick A. Cook Society] * [http://humbug.polarhist.com Frederick A. Cook: from Hero to Humbug]</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Golden Jackal 2008-07-15T17:18:24Z 2008-07-15T17:18:24 2008-07-15T17:18:24Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Taxobox_begin | color = pink| name = Golden Jackal}} {{StatusLeastConcern}} {{Taxobox_image | image = [[Image:Golden_Jackal.jpg]]| caption =}} {{Taxobox_begin_placement | color = pink}} {{Taxobox_regnum_entry | taxon = [[Animal]]ia}} {{Taxobox_phylum_entry | taxon = [[Chordate|Chordata]]}} {{Taxobox_classis_entry | taxon = [[Mammal]]ia}} {{Taxobox_ordo_entry | taxon = [[Carnivora]]}} {{Taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = [[Canidae]]}} {{Taxobox_genus_entry | taxon = ''[[Canis]]''}} {{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''C. aureus'''''}} {{Taxobox_end_placement}} {{Taxobox_section_binomial | color = pink| binomial_name = Canis aureus | author = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] | date = [[1758]]}} {{Taxobox_end}} '''Golden Jackals''' (''Canis aureus''), also called '''Asiatic''' or '''Common Jackals''', are small [[jackal]]s native to northen and central [[Africa]] and southern [[Asia]]. Golden jackals live 7 to 9 years in the wild, but have been known to live up 16 years in captivity. ==Appearance== Golden Jackals have golden reddish-yellow fur with a white mark on the throat, but the color can vary with age, region, season, such as in the winter the coat darkens. Body length: 70-85 cm, height: 40 cm. They can Weigh little as 8 kg and much as 10 kg. Males tend to be larger than the females ==Habitat== Golden Jackals inhabit the Balkan peninsula, to Thailand and Sri Lanka, Morocco to Egypt and northern Tanzania. Golden Jackals prefer dry open country, arid short grasslands with tress. ==Diet== Cooperative hunting is important to the Jackals because pairs are three times more likely to be successful than individuals in hunting. Their diet varies, but includes birds, rodents, fish, young gazelles, insects and fruit. They will often follow lions and other big cats to scavenge their kills. ==Behavior== Golden Jackals tend to live in small family groups consisting of a mother, father and some of their offspring, which serve as "helpers". "Helpers" stay with the parents for a year after reaching sexual maturity, to help take care of the next litter. Golden Jackals mate for life. They hunt, defend territory, share food, and provide for the offspring together. ==Reproduction== They have a gestation period of nine weeks, after which they give birth to six to nine pups. They weigh 200-250 g at birth. During pregnancy, the male will hunt and bring her food.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Black-backed Jackal 2008-07-15T17:15:04Z 2008-07-15T17:15:04 2008-07-15T17:15:04Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Taxobox_begin | color = pink | name = Black-backed Jackal}} {{Taxobox_image | image = [[image:Black-backed_jackal_pcb.jpg|200px|Black-backed Jackal]] | caption = }} {{Taxobox_begin_placement | color = pink}} {{Taxobox_regnum_entry | taxon = [[Animal]]ia}} {{Taxobox_phylum_entry | taxon = [[Chordate|Chordata]]}} {{Taxobox_classis_entry | taxon = [[mammal|Mammalia]]}} {{Taxobox_ordo_entry | taxon = [[Carnivora]]}} {{Taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = [[Canidae]]}} {{Taxobox_genus_entry | taxon = ''[[Canis]]''}} {{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''C. mesomelas'''''}} {{Taxobox_end_placement}} {{Taxobox_section_binomial | color = pink | binomial_name = Canis mesomelas | author = [[Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber|Schreber]] | date = [[1775]]}} {{Taxobox_end}} The '''Black-backed jackal''' is an [[Africa|African]] canine with a [[fox]]-like appearance, tan fur, and a thick stripe of black and silver running down its back. They weigh anywhere from 15 to 30 pounds and are 15 to 30 centimeters at the shoulder. Males are usually larger than females. They are territorial, monogamous, and usually live in small family groups. They often [[scavenger|scavenge]], but they are also successful hunters. They sometimes are killed for livestock predation or for their furs, but they are quite common throughout their range.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Shrew mole 2008-07-15T16:55:07Z 2008-07-15T16:55:07 2008-07-15T16:55:07Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Taxobox_begin | color = pink | name = Uropsilinae}} {{Taxobox_begin_placement | color = pink}} {{Taxobox_regnum_entry | taxon = [[Animal]]ia}} {{Taxobox_phylum_entry | taxon = [[Chordate|Chordata]]}} {{Taxobox_classis_entry | taxon = [[Mammal]]ia}} {{Taxobox_ordo_entry | taxon = [[Insectivora]]}} {{Taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = [[Talpidae]]}} {{Taxobox_subfamilia_entry | taxon = '''Uropsilinae'''}} {{Taxobox_end_placement}} {{Taxobox_section_subdivision | color = pink | plural_taxon = [[Genera]]}} ''[[Uropsilus]]'' {{Taxobox_end}} The '''Shrew moles''' or '''Uropsilinae''' are one of three subfamilies of the [[mole (animal)|mole]] family '''Talpidae''', the others being the [[Talpinae]] and the [[Desman]]s or '''Desmaninae'''. This subfamily consists of four species in genus Uropsilus which are found in forested or alpine regions in [[China]]. They are similar to [[shrew]]s in appearance. These animals tunnel but also forage on the surface in leaf litter. The two species in genus ''[[Urotrichus]]'', found in [[Japan]], and the [[American Shrew Mole]], ''Neurotrichus gibbsii'', are also known as shrew moles because of their shrew-like appearance, but are grouped in subfamily '''Talpinae'''.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Red-toothed shrews 2008-07-15T16:52:32Z 2008-07-15T16:52:32 2008-07-15T16:52:32Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> The '''Red-toothed shrews''' or '''Soricinae''' are one of two subfamilies of the [[shrew]] family '''Soricidae''', the other being the [[White-toothed shrews]] or '''Crocidurinae'''. The outer layer of their teeth is reddish and is known to contain [[iron]] deposits. These species are typically found in [[North America]], [[Europe]] and northern [[Asia]].</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Ruminate 2008-07-15T16:18:36Z 2008-07-15T16:18:36 2008-07-15T16:18:36Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>Ruminate: to digest food in two steps, first by eating the raw material and regurgitating a semi-digested form known as cud, then eating the cud.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Artiodactyls 2008-07-15T16:17:33Z 2008-07-15T16:17:33 2008-07-15T16:17:33Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Taxobox_begin | color = pink | name = Even-toed ungulates}} {{Taxobox_image | image = [[image:Mountain-Goat-225.jpg|240px]] | caption = [[Mountain Goat]]}} {{Taxobox_begin_placement | color = pink}} {{Taxobox_regnum_entry | taxon = [[Animal]]ia}} {{Taxobox_phylum_entry | taxon = [[Chordate|Chordata]]}} {{Taxobox_classis_entry | taxon = [[Mammal]]ia}} {{Taxobox_ordo_entry | taxon = '''Artiodactyla'''}} {{Taxobox_end_placement}} {{Taxobox_section_subdivision | color = pink | plural_taxon = Families}} [[Suidae]] [[Hippopotamidae]] [[Tayassuidae]] [[Camelidae]] [[Tragulidae]] [[Moschidae]] [[Cervidae]] [[Giraffidae]] [[Antilocapridae]] [[Bovidae]] {{Taxobox_end}} The '''even-toed ungulates''' form the [[mammal]] [[order (biology)|order]] '''Artiodactyla'''. They are [[ungulate]]s whose weight is borne about equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than mostly or entirely by the third as in [[perissodactyls]]. There are about 220 artiodactyl [[species]], including many that are of great [[economic]] importance to [[human]]s. As with many mammal groups, even-toed ungulates first appeared during the Early [[Eocene]] (about 54 million years ago). In form they were rather like today's [[chevrotain]]s: small, short-legged creatures that ate [[leaves]] and the soft parts of [[plants]]. By the Late Eocene (46 million years ago), the three modern suborders had already developed: [[Suina]] (the [[pig]] group); [[Tylopoda]] (the [[camel]] group); and [[Ruminantia]] (the [[goat]] and [[cattle]] group). Nevertheless, artiodactyls were far from dominant at that time: the [[odd-toed ungulate]]s (ancestors of today's [[horse]]s and [[rhino]]s) were much more successful and far more numerous. Even-toed ungulates survived in niche roles, usually occupying marginal [[habitat]]s, and it is presumably at that time that they developed their complex [[digestive system]]s, which allowed them to survive on lower-grade feed. The appearance of [[grass]]es during the [[Eocene]] and their subsequent spread during the [[Miocene]] (about 20 million years ago) saw a major change: grasses are very difficult to digest and the even-toed ungulates with their highly-developed [[stomach]]s were better able to adapt to this coarse, low-[[nutrition]] diet, and soon replaced the odd-toed ungulates as the dominant [[terrestrial]] [[herbivore]]s. The artiodactyls fall into two groups which, despite underlying similarities, are rather different. The suoids (pigs, [[hippo]]s, and [[peccary|peccaries]]) retain four toes, have simpler [[molar]]s, short legs, and their [[canine teeth]] are often enlarged to form [[tusk]]s. In general, they are [[omnivore]]s and have a simple stomach. (The two hippopotamus species are exceptions.) The camelids and the Ruminantia, on the other hand, tend to be longer-legged, to have only two toes, to have more complex cheek teeth well-suited to grinding up tough grasses, and multi-chambered stomachs. Not only are their digestive systems highly developed, they have also evolved the habit of chewing [[cud]]: regurgitating part-digested food to chew it again and extract the maximum possible benefit from it. Lastly a group of artiodactyls, which [[molecular biology]] suggests were most closely related to Hippopotamidae, returned to the sea [[Evolution of cetaceans|to become whales]]. * '''ORDER ARTIODACTYLA''' ** '''Suborder Suina''' *** Family [[Suidae]]: pigs *** Family [[Hippopotamidae]]: hippos *** Family [[Tayassuidae]]: peccaries ** '''Suborder Tylopoda''' *** Family [[Camelidae]]: camels and [[llama]]s ** '''Suborder [[Ruminantia]]''' *** Family [[Tragulidae]]: chevrotains *** Family [[Moschidae]]: musk deer *** Family [[Cervidae]]: [[deer]] *** Family [[Giraffidae]]: [[Giraffe]] and [[Okapi]] *** Family [[Antilocapridae]]: pronghorn *** Family [[Bovidae]]: cattle, goats, [[sheep]], and [[antelope]] All [[kosher]] mammals are Ruminantia. [[Camelidae|Tylopoda]] walk on pads on the toes (the name means "padfoot") and are therefore considered not to have true hooves; but they are [[halal]]. Pigs do not [[ruminate]] and are considered unclean by both [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]]. {{Mammals}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Golden moles 2008-07-14T12:30:28Z 2008-07-14T12:30:28 2008-07-14T12:30:28Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>{{Taxobox begin | color = pink | name = Golden moles}}  {{Taxobox begin placement | color = pink}} {{Taxobox regnum entry | taxon = [[Animal|Animalia]]}} {{Taxobox phylum entry | taxon = [[Chordate|Chordata]]}} {{Taxobox classis entry | taxon = [[Mammal]]ia}} {{Taxobox ordo entry | taxon = [[Afrosoricida]]}} {{Taxobox familia entry | taxon = '''Chrysochloridae'''}} {{Taxobox end placement}} {{Taxobox section subdivision | color = pink | plural_taxon = Genera}} ''&nbsp;Eremitalpa &nbsp;Chrysospalax &nbsp;Chrysochloris '' ''&nbsp;Cryptochloris &nbsp;Carpitalpa &nbsp;Chlorotalpa '' ''&nbsp;Calcochloris &nbsp;Amblysomus &nbsp;Neamblysomus'' {{Taxobox end}} '''Golden moles''' are small, insectivorous burrowing [[mammal]]s native to southern [[Africa]]. They bear a remarkable resemblance to the [[marsupial mole]]s of [[Australia]], so much so that, the [[marsupial]]/[[placental]] divide notwithstanding, they were once thought to be related! Golden moles live almost exclusively underground. Like several other burrowing mammals with similar habits, have short legs with powerful digging claws, very dense fur that repels dirt and moisture, and toughened skin, particularly on the head. They retain eyes but they are non-functional and covered with skin and fur, the ears are just tiny openings, and, like the marsupial moles, they have an enlarged leather-like pad to protect their nostrils. They range in size from about 8 to about 20 cm. They have muscular shoulders and an enlarged third claw to aid digging on the forelimbs, with no fifth digit and vestigal first and fourth; the hind feet retain all five toes and are webbed to allow efficient backward shoveling of the soil loosened with the front claws. Like most of the mammals that originated in [[Gondwana]], golden moles used to be regarded as rather 'primitive' creatures: their low resting metabolic rate and their ability to switch off thermoregulation when inactive, however, are no longer regarded as indications that golden moles are undeveloped 'reptilian mammals', but rather as essential adaptations to a harsh climate. By going into a torpor when resting or during cold weather, they conserve energy and reduce their need for food. Similarly, they have developed particularly efficient kidneys and most species do not need to drink water at all. Of the 21 species of golden mole, no less than 11 are threatened with extinction. The primary causes are sand mining, poor agricultural practices, increasing urbanisation, and predation by domestic cats and dogs. As with many groups, the classification of the golden moles is undergoing an upheaval at present in the light of the flood of new genetic information becoming available. They have traditionally been listed with the [[shrew]]s, [[hedgehog]]s and a grab-bag of small, difficult-to-place creatures as part of the order [[Insectivora]]. Some authorities retain this classification, at least for the time being. Others group the golden moles with the [[tenrec]]s in a new order which, unhelpfully, may be known as either '''[[Afrosoricida]]''' or '''Tenrecomorpha'''. For simplicity, the former is used here.</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Australian Silky Terrier 2008-07-10T16:15:19Z 2008-07-10T16:15:19 2008-07-10T16:15:19Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>The '''Australian Silky Terrier''' is an [[Australia]]n [[dog breed|breed of dog]]. It is classed in the [[toy dog|Toy ]] group in its country of origin and some other countries, but is classed as a [[terrier]] in [[Europe]].  {| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpadding="2" style="margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0.75em" |- align="center" bgcolor="pink" !Australian Silky Terrier |- align="center" | |- align="center" bgcolor="pink" !Alternative names |- | {| align="center" |- |Silky Terrier Sydney Silky | |} |- align="center" bgcolor="pink" !Common nickname |- align="center" |Silky |- align="center" bgcolor="pink" !Country of origin |- align="center" |[[Australia]] |- align="center" bgcolor="pink" !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align="center"  |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 3 Section 4 #236 |[http://www.dogdomain.com/FCI/fcistandards/fci-236.htm Stds] |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: ||Toy |[http://www.akc.org/breeds/silky_terrier/index.cfm Stds] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: ||Toy |[http://http://www.ankc.aust.com/austsilk.html Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Group 5 (Toys) |[http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/silky.htm Stds] |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Toy |[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/toy/y903.htm Stds] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Toy |[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br104.html Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Terriers |[http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/terriers/silkyterrier.std.shtml Stds] |- |} |- align="center" bgcolor="pink" !Notes |- align="center" |Note |}  ==Appearance== The average Australian Silky Terrier is about nine inches at the [[withers]], and weighs eight to ten pounds. Its head is longer than that of the [[Yorkshire Terrier]] but shorter than that of the [[Australian Terrier]]. The [[coat (dog)|coat]] is five to six inches long with a silky texture. == Temperament == Notwithstanding that this breed is in the toy group, the [[Australian National Kennel Council]] breed standard specifies that the Australian Silky "should display Terrier characteristics, embodying keen alertness, activity and soundness". ==History== The Silky is generally believed to have developed by crossing the [[Yorkshire Terrier]] with the [[Australian Terrier]] in [[Sydney]] in the [[1890s]], but [[breed]] [[historian]]s point out that the Australian Terrier was itself still a developing breed at the time of the Silky's emergence, and, since no early records were kept (as is the case with so many dog breeds) it is likely that other crosses occurred as well. There were also [[selective breeding|breeding experiments with these crosses]] in the state of [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]]; it is suggested that Australian and Silky Terriers were first exhibited at the [[Melbourne Royal]] in [[1872]] as "Broken-coated Terriers, Black and Tan", however, the breed is not mentioned in ''The Dog of Australia'', [[Walter Beilby]]'s 1987 book. Certainly it is documented that whatever the outcrossing, puppies evidencing rough and silky coats appeared in the same litters at the turn of the 20th Century. The Australian Terrier, Harsh or Silky coated, was first exhibited at the [[Sydney Royal Easter Show]] in 1902. Different [[breed standard]]s appeared in the [[1920s]]; in or about [[1924]] the [[Kennel Club]] requested a designation of Australian Terrier, Hard Coat and Australian Terrier, Soft Coat but the breeders rejected the proposal. Before puppies were registered on the Stud Books, a judge was required to inspect litters to determine which puppies were to be registered as Sydney Silkies, which were Australian Terriers and which were Yorkshire Terriers. 20th Century [[kennel club|canine council]] legislation brought an end to the [[crossbreeding]]; eventually Silky puppies were intrabred and the breed was stabilized. The official name for the breed in Australia became the Australian Silky Terrier in [[1955]]. The breed club was established in [[1959]]. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Shikoku (dog) 2008-07-10T16:08:09Z 2008-07-10T16:08:09 2008-07-10T16:08:09Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>The '''Shikoku''' is a [[Japan]]ese purebred [[dog]] that is similar to a [[Shiba Inu]]. It is cautious and brave with good judgement. It is also loyal to its master. It has sharper features than most Japanese dogs and is sometimes allowed to chase wild [[boar]] so it will maintain its nature. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Standard Schnauzer 2008-07-10T16:06:54Z 2008-07-10T16:06:54 2008-07-10T16:06:54Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Standard Schnauzer |- align=center | |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Alternative names |- | {| align=center |- |Mittelschnauzer |- |Schnauzer |- |Schnauzer-Pinscher (obsolete) |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Germany]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 2 Section 1 #182 |[http://www.dogdomain.com/FCI/fcistandards/fci-182.htm Stds] |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: || Working |[http://www.akc.org/breeds/standard_schnauzer/index.cfm Stds] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: || Group 6 (Utility) |[http://www.ankc.aust.com/schnauz.html Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Group 3 - Working Dogs |[http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/schnauzerstandard.htm Stds] |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Utility |[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/utility/u1067.htm Stds] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Utility |[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br688.html Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Herding |[http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/herdingdogs/standardschnauzer.std.shtml Stds] |- |} |} The [[Standard Schnauzer]] is the original [[dog breed|breed]] of the three sizes of [[Schnauzer]], although it is sometimes classified as a [[terrier]]. The breed is a handsome, robust, squarely built, medium-sized [[dog]] with aristocratic bearing, making it a popular subject of painters [[Albrecht D? and [[Rembrandt]]. ==Appearance== The Standard Schnauzer has a harsh, wiry [[outer coat]] with minimal shedding that is salt and pepper or solid black in color. Ideal weight and height ranges vary considerably from one breed club standard to the next. Males range between 18 and 20 inches (45cm-50cm) high at the [[withers]] and generally weigh between 35 and 50 pounds (15.5 kg-22.5 kg). Females are ideally between 17 and 19 inches( 42.5 cm-47.5 cm) high at the [[withers]] and generally weigh between 30 and 45 pounds(13.5kg-20.2kg). ==Temperament== The Standard Shnauzer is sociable, alert, a comedian, a formidable guard, and a family companion. Properly raised and trained, they are reliable companions with their own family's children. They are usually not unnecessary barkers. They are noted for guarding the family home and for displaying devotion to their immediate family. It learns fairly easily and has been used as a [[retriever]] both on land and in the water. ==Health== The Standard Schnauzer in general is a very healthy breed with a relatively long life span from 14 to 16 years. ==History== The breed originated in the [[Middle Ages]] in southern [[Germany]] and adjoining regions of [[Switzerland]] and [[France]]. Its ancestry might have included the [[Spitz]] and various other [[guard dog]]s. The Schnauzer's original uses included catching [[vermin]] &mdash;such as [[rat]]s&mdash;and guarding. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Schnauzer 2008-07-10T16:04:02Z 2008-07-10T16:04:02 2008-07-10T16:04:02Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>[[Image:Giant-Schnauzer.jpg|thumb|right|Giant Schnauzer]] [[Image:Miniature-Schnauzer4.jpg|thumb|right|Miniature Schnauzer]] A '''Schnauzer''' is a [[Germany|German]] type of [[dog]]. The name comes from the [[German language|German]] word for [[moustache]] because of the dogs' distinctively furry noses. [[Kennel club]]s generally subdivide these dogs into three [[dog breed|breeds]] by size: *[[Miniature Schnauzer]] *[[Standard Schnauzer]] *[[Giant Schnauzer]] Though derived from a common ancestor and sharing certain physical attributes and personality traits&mdash;notably intelligence, a friendly personality, and a mischievous sense of humor&mdash;the three breeds are separate types of dogs. The [[Black Russian Terrier]] is also sometimes known as the Russian Bear Schnauzer. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Rajapalayam (dog) 2008-07-10T16:02:48Z 2008-07-10T16:02:48 2008-07-10T16:02:48Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=255 align=right cellpadding=2 style="width:250px; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; clear: right" |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Rajapalayam |- align=center | |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Alternative names |- | {| align=center |- | |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[India]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Notes |- align=center |Breed not currently recognized by the major kennel clubs. |} The '''Rajapalayam''' is an [[India|Indian]] [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]]. It is found mainly in the southern parts of India. It is also known as the '''Paleiyakaran''' or '''Poligar Hound'''. It is a pedigree breed. Its population is concentrated in the place called Rajapalayam, Virudhunagar Dist in [[Tamil Nadu]]. It is a strong and ferocious breed of dog. Because its population is becoming less and less, it is possible that it could become extinct unless devotees manage to increase interest in the breed. ==External links== * [http://www.rajapalayam.org/rajapalayamdog.html Rajapalayam Dog] [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Polish Lowland Sheepdog 2008-07-10T16:01:48Z 2008-07-10T16:01:48 2008-07-10T16:01:48Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Polish Lowland Sheepdog |- align=center | |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Alternative names |- | {| align=center |- |Polski Owczarek Nizinny |- |Valee Sheepdog |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Common nickname |- align=center |PON, Nizinny, PLS |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Poland]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 1 Section 1 #251 || [http://www.dogdomain.com/FCI/fcistandards/fci-251.htm Std] |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: || Herding || [http://www.akc.org/breeds/polish_lowland_sheepdog/index.cfm Std] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: || Group 5 (Working) || [http://www.ankc.aust.com/polishlo.html Std] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Miscellaneous Class |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Pastoral || [http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/pastoral/p865.htm Std] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Working || [http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br538.html Std] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Herding Dog Breeds || [http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/herdingdogs/pon.std.shtml Std] |- |} |}  The '''Polish Lowland Sheepdog''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: '''''Polski Owczarek Nizinny'''''), also just '''PON''', is a medium sized, shaggy-coated, [[sheep dog]] [[dog breed|breed]] native to [[Poland]]. == Appearance == The PON is a stocky, muscular, thick-coated dog. The [[double coat]] can be of any color or pattern, although white, gray, and brown are most common, with black, gray, or brown markings. It is common for colors to fade as the dogs reach adulthood. The [[undercoat]] is soft and dense, while the [[topcoat]] is rough and either straight or wavy, but not curly. The hair around the head makes the head appear to be larger than it actually is, and typically covers the eyes. Males are 45 &mdash; 50 [[centimeter|cm]] (18 &mdash; 20 [[inch|in]]) in height at the [[withers]], while females are 42 &mdash; 47 cm (16 &mdash; 19 cm). The body is not square, but rectangular. The ratio of the height to the body length should be 9:10 (a 45 cm tall dog should have a body 50 cm long). The tail is either very short or [[docking|docked]]. == Temperament == PONs are stable and self-confident, but are wary of strangers. They have an excellent memory and can be well trained, but may dominate a weak-willed owner. PONs adapt well to various conditions, and are popular as [[companion dog]]s for [[apartment]] dwellers in their native Poland. PONs require a moderate amount of exercise daily. ==History== Known in its present form in Poland from at least the [[thirteenth century]], the PON is most likely decended from the [[Puli]] and the [[herding dog]]s of the [[Huns]]. Kazimierz Grabski, a Polish merchant, traded a shipment of grain for [[sheep]] in [[Scotland]] in [[1514]], and brought six PONs to move the sheep. A Scottish shepherd was so impressed with the herding ability of the dogs that he traded a ram and two ewes for a dog and two bitches. These dogs were bred with the local Scottish dogs to produce the Scottish herding dogs, most obviously the [[Bearded Collie]]. Almost driven to extinction in [[World War II]], the PON was restored mainly through the work of Dr. Danuta Hryeniewicz and her dog, ''Smok'', the ancestor of all PONs in the world today, who sired the first ten litters of PONs in the [[1950s]]. The breed standard was written with Smok as the model, and accepted by the [[F?ration Cynologique Internationale]] in [[1959]]. == Health == In general, PONs are a very healthy breed. Animals should be checked for [[hip dysplasia]] and [[progressive retinal atrophy]] before being used for breeding. PONs require a low [[protien]] diet. Their food intake should be carefully monitored, as they tend to [[obesity]]. The life expectancy of a PON is 12 &mdash; 15 years. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Otterhound 2008-07-10T16:00:35Z 2008-07-10T16:00:35 2008-07-10T16:00:35Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Otterhound |- align=center | |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Alternative names |- | {| align=center |- |None |- |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 6 Section 2 #294 |[http://www.pointernet.pds.hu/kutya/standards/294.html#EN Stds] |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: || Hound |[http://www.akc.org/breeds/otterhound/index.cfm Stds] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: || Group 4 (Hounds) |[http://www.ankc.aust.com/otterhnd.html Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Group 2 - Hounds |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Hound |[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h786.htm Stds] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Hounds |[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br477.html Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Groupname |[http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/scenthounds/otterhound.std.shtml Stds] |- |} |} The '''Otterhound''' is an old [[United Kingdom|British]] [[dog breed]], with [[Bloodhound]] ancestors, and who is in turn one of the ancestors of the [[Airedale Terrier]]. ==Appearance== The Otterhound is a large, rough-coated hound with an imposing head showing great strength and dignity, and the strong body and long striding action fit for a long day's work. They generally weigh between 80 and 120 pounds (36 to 54 kg). It has an extremely sensitive nose, and is inquisitive and perseverant in investigating scents. The Otterhound hunts its quarry on land and it has a combination of characteristics unique among hounds; most notably a rough, [[double coat]] and substantial webbed feet. == Temperament == They are basically big, friendly dogs with a unique bass voice that they sometimes use to excess. Because Otterhounds were originally bred for hunting, their most important characteristic is their ultrasensitive nose. As a result, new owners of Otterhounds often find that their new dog gets into everything and that the dog needs to be supervised or confined when unsupervised. The Otterhound's hunting background means that it has energy and endurance, requiring more energetic exercise than simply walking around the block. This is a good breed for hunters or for people who enjoy jogging or other kinds of exercise. == Health == The breed lives to between 10 and 13 years old, although some have reportedly lived to be 15 or older. == Miscellaneous == There are only an estimated 1,000 or so Otterhounds in the world and only 23 are currently registered with the [[American Kennel Club]]. There are many factors that have contributed to this. One reason may be that otter hunting has been outlawed in most areas of the world during the [[20th Century]]. Despite this, Otterhounds are good family dogs that simply demand a bit more attention at times than some other dogs. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Olde Englishe Bulldogge 2008-07-10T15:59:51Z 2008-07-10T15:59:51 2008-07-10T15:59:51Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div>The current day '''Olde Englishe Bulldogge''' is a [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]] that "resulted from a breeder's attempt to recreate the ancient [[English Bulldog]], but without its tendency toward aggression. By combining the affable modern English Bulldog with the more resolute [[American Pit Bull Terrier]], [[Bullmastiff]], and [[American Bulldog]], he was successful in eliminating the English Bulldog's breathing problems" and several other health issues, "while at the same time diminishing the tenacity of some of the other breeds." [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Old Danish Pointer 2008-07-10T15:59:18Z 2008-07-10T15:59:18 2008-07-10T15:59:18Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Old danish pointer |- align=center | |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Denmark]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 7 Section 1 #281 |[http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/281gb97_en.doc Stds] |} |}  The '''Old Danish Pointer''' is a medium-sized [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]], white with brown markings, originally used as a [[pointer (dog)|pointing dog]] in [[Denmark]]. == Appearance == Old Danish Pointers are strongly built. One of the most charming features of the breed is the great difference between male and female. While the dog is powerful and substantial, the bitch is characterized by being lighter, more spirited, and capricious. * Height at the [[withers]]: ** Male 54-60 cm (21-23.5 in), above 56 cm (22 in) preferred. ** Bitch 50-56 cm (19.5-22 in), above 52 cm (20 in) preferred. * Weight: ** Male 30-35 kg (66-77 lb) ** Bitch 26-31 kg (57-68 lb) == Temperament == Conveys the impression of a quiet and stable dog showing determination and courage. During the hunt, the dog progresses rather slowly, always maintaining contact with the hunter and accomplishing its task as a [[pointer (dog)|pointing dog]] without creating unnecessary disturbance of the ground. The breed is suited for small as well as large hunting grounds. This is a friendly family dog, as long as it gets its excercise. It is fast and active outdoors and quiet indoors, but is not suitable for apartments or small yards. == History == The origin of the breed can be traced back to about the year 1710 when a man named Morten Bak, living in Glenstrup near the towns of [[Randers]] and [[Hobro]], crossed [[gypsy]] dogs through 8 generations with local farmdogs and in this way established a pure breed of [[piebald]] white and brown dogs called Bakhounds or Old Danish Pointers. The local farmers called their farmdogs [[bloodhound|Bloodhounds]], but it seems more likely that these hounds were offspring from the Squire?s scent hounds, which in turn were descended primarily from [[St. Hubert Hound]]s. Likewise it is probable that the gypsy dogs generally descended from Spanish Pointing Dogs and other breeds of scent hounds, so in many ways St.Hubert Hounds have contributed to the Old Danish Pointer. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Norwegian Elkhound 2008-07-10T09:09:34Z 2008-07-10T09:09:34 2008-07-10T09:09:34Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 width=255 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Norwegian Buhund |- align=center |[[Image:Norwegian Buhund 600.jpg|thumb|none|250px|The Buhund comes in a variety of colors.]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Alternative names |- |- | {| align=center |- |Norsk Buhund |- |Norwegian Sheepdog |- |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Norway]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 5 Section 3 #237 | |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: || (FSS) |[http://www.akc.org/breeds/norwegian_buhund/index.cfm Stds] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: || Group 5 (Working Dogs) |[http://www.ankc.aust.com/norwbuh.html Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Group ? - Pastoral |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Hound |[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/pastoral/p862.htm Stds] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Working |[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br532.html Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Northern Breeds | |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Notes |- align=center |The AKC's Foundation Stock Service is for breeds working towards full recognition. |}  The '''Norwegian Buhund''' is a [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]], specifically a member of the [[spitz]] family. The dog is the national dog breed of [[Norway]]. It is closley related to [[Icelandic Sheepdog]]. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Norwegian Buhund 2008-07-10T09:08:56Z 2008-07-10T09:08:56 2008-07-10T09:08:56Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 width=255 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Norwegian Buhund |- align=center |[[Image:Norwegian Buhund 600.jpg|thumb|none|250px|The Buhund comes in a variety of colors.]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Alternative names |- |- | {| align=center |- |Norsk Buhund |- |Norwegian Sheepdog |- |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Norway]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 5 Section 3 #237 | |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: || (FSS) |[http://www.akc.org/breeds/norwegian_buhund/index.cfm Stds] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: || Group 5 (Working Dogs) |[http://www.ankc.aust.com/norwbuh.html Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Group ? - Pastoral |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Hound |[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/pastoral/p862.htm Stds] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Working |[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br532.html Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Northern Breeds | |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Notes |- align=center |The AKC's Foundation Stock Service is for breeds working towards full recognition. |}  The '''Norwegian Buhund''' is a [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]], specifically a member of the [[spitz]] family. The dog is the national dog breed of [[Norway]]. It is closley related to [[Icelandic Sheepdog]]. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Norfolk Terrier 2008-07-10T09:08:20Z 2008-07-10T09:08:20 2008-07-10T09:08:20Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Norfolk Terrier |- align=center | |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Great Britain]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 3 Section 2 #272 |[http://www.dogdomain.com/FCI/fcistandards/fci-272.htm Stds] |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: || Terriers |[http://www.akc.org/breeds/norfolk_terrier/index.cfm Stds] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: || Group 2 Terriers |[http://www.ankc.aust.com/norfolk.html Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Terriers |[http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/norfolkterrier.htm Stds] |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Terriers |[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/terrier/t892.htm Stds] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Terriers |[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br258.html Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Terriers |[http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/terriers/norfolkterrier.std.shtml Stds] |- |} |} The '''Norfolk Terrier''' is a small [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]], one of many [[terrier]] breeds. It is a drop-eared version of the [[Norwich Terrier]], first recognized as a separate breed only in the [[1960s]]. == Appearance == The Norfolk Terrier has a wire-haired [[coat (dog)|coat]], which comes in many colors. == Temperament == The breed is typically playful and friendly. The Norfolk terrier usually plays well with children, although because of the dog's small size, younger children must be supervised. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Neapolitan Mastiff 2008-07-10T09:07:46Z 2008-07-10T09:07:46 2008-07-10T09:07:46Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Neapolitan Mastiff  |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Italy]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Common nicknames |- align=center |Neo |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 2 Section 2 #197 |[http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/197A2003_en.doc Stds] |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: || Working |[http://www.akc.org/breeds/neapolitan_mastiff/index.cfm Stds] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: || Group 6 (Utility) |[http://www.ankc.aust.com/neamast.html Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Miscellaneous |[http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/neopolitan.htm Stds] |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Working |[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/working/w860.htm Stds] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Utility |[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br650.html Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Guardian |[http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/guardiandogs/neapolitanmastiff.std.shtml Stds] |- |} |}  The '''Neapolitan Mastiff''' is a large, ancient [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]] that can be traced back to about [[100 BC]]. This dog is a massive, awe-inspiring dog breed often used as a [[guard dog|guard]] and defender of owner and property. == Appearance == Neapolitan Mastiff are characterized by loose skin over their entire bodies; abundant, hanging wrinkles and folds on the head; and a voluminous [[dewlap]]. The Neapolitan has a characteristic beastial appearance, with a huge head and imposing size and attitude. == History == The Neapolitan Mastiff is descendant of the [[Molussus]], the mammoth war dogs of the [[Middle East]], and was frequently used in the Roman [[arena]]s pitted against [[lion]]s, [[bear]]s, and [[gladiator]]s for entertainment. As dogs of war, they fought alongside the Roman [[legion]]s, and in this way they were spread throughout [[Europe]]. Eventually the descendants of the Roman Molossian splintered into several different Mastiff breeds: [[English Mastiff]], [[Dogue de Bordeaux]], [[Spanish Mastiff]], [[St. Bernard (dog)|St. Bernard]], and [[Rottweiler]]. In the [[1940s]], this breed was rediscovered near [[Naples]] in [[Italy]], and is now beginning to make a comeback. A Neapolitan Mastiff was featured in the [[Harry Potter]] movies as Hagrid's dog Fang. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Small Munsterlander 2008-07-10T09:07:05Z 2008-07-10T09:07:05 2008-07-10T09:07:05Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Small Munsterlander |- align=center | |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Alternative names |- | {| align=center |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Common nickname |- align=center | |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Germany]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 7 Section 1 #102 |[http://www.dogdomain.com/fcistandards/fci-102.htm Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Miscellaneous |[http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/munsterlander.htm Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Gun Dog | |- |} |} The '''Small Munsterlander Pointer''' is a [[hunting dog|hunting]]-[[pointer (dog)|pointing]]-[[retriever|retrieving]] [[dog breed]] that reached its current form in the area around [[Munster]], Germany. The [[Large Munsterlander]] is from the same area, but was developed from different breeding stock and is not as closely related as the names would suggest. SMPs bear a resemblance to both [[spaniel]]s and [[setter]]s but are rather more versatile. == Appearance == The breed is often described as about 35 pounds (16 kg) and 18-20 inches (0.45 to 0.5 m) at the shoulder, but the average is somewhat larger, around 45 pounds (20 kg) with some males reaching or slightly exceeding 60 pounds (27 kg) and up to 22 inches (0.55 m). The body is lean yet powerful and not prone to becoming overweight due to an active nature and natural athleticism. Coloration is large patches of brown on a ticked or solid white background. The soft coat is medium length, requiring grooming after hunting in heavy cover or weekly otherwise. The breed is not registered with the [[American Kennel Club]], which emphasizes appearance over actual ability. Rather it is registered with the [[United Kennel Club]] and there are performance standards that breeding dogs must meet. == Temperament == Small Munsterlander Pointers are very intelligent, trainable, and attentive but require gentle and patient training, which provides excellent results. They are also strong-willed and an owner who is inconsistent or indecisive might find that his dog is hard to control. Both voice and hand signals are used, and an SMP looks back at the hunter for silent signals at intervals when on hold or pointing. They have a very strong drive to follow their keen sense of smell, and thrive with hunting or comparably challenging excercise for an hour or more every day. They love swimming, too. Lack of regular and sufficient exercise and mental challenge will likely result in unwanted behavior, which is common in highly intelligent, driven breeds. They mature rather slowly over 2.5 to 3 years but a well-trained, mature "moonster" is a 'fur and feather' hunting machine without peer, and the upland bird hunter hunting over such a dog will enjoy both the experience and great success. The Small Munsterlander Pointer is a happy, affectionate family pet when in the house, while remaining a keenly focused, even driven, hunter-pointer-retriever when in the field. They are not suited to life in a [[kennel]] because of their sociable nature and need to interact with people&mdash;they need to live in the home of their human family. SMPs will pick an individual person to bond most closely with, typically the one who hunts with the dog, but will revel in the company of the rest of the family, too. When raised with other pets in the household, such as [[cat]]s, they can coexist happily though they may enjoy a game of chase and point. Unfamiliar small animals outdoors will not be tolerated in the same way. ==History== Originally a dog bred to work with noble families' [[falconer]]s before guns were used in bird and small game hunting, ancestors of the Small Munsterlander Pointer had to work in upland areas to flush prey for the [[falcon]], then allow the falcon to keep the prey until the falconer could retrieve it while the dog pointed at the catch. To this day the Small Munsterlander has excellent close searching and pointing drive. With wider availability of guns and personal time for commoners, hunting became more popular, and the breed was further developed as a retriever that worked equally well in the field and water. Owners of the breed consider it to be uniquely effective in working as a team with the huntsman in all phases of the hunt, akin to the close cooperation between a sheep herder and [[Border Collie]]. By the 1800s the breed had fallen into obscurity. Small Munsterlanders were little known, kept by a few families on farms around Munster. For a half century the few dogs that were bred were primarily companions, and used when hunting to feed the family rather than for sport. It developed a local reputation as the dog to have when a hunter's success or failure determined whether his family would have enough to eat. At the end of the 19th century, a concerted effort was made to re-establish the breed from the remaining lines in the Munster region. The fortunate outcome of the companion phase in the Small Munsterlander Pointer's history was its excellent in-home personality. ==Miscellaneous== The Small Munsterlander Pointer is rare in the United States, numbering perhaps in the hundreds, and demand from hunters outstrips the number of available dogs, so breeders typically give preference to hunters. They're especially hard to come by for nonhunters there. They are more numerous in [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and the [[Czech Republic]]. SMPs excel in nonhunting roles as well because of their exceptional scent-tracking ability, and are used in [[search and rescue]] teams and contraband detection ("drug sniffing") roles as well. Other names for this breed: Kleine Munsterlander Vorsthhunde (abbreviated KIM) or Spion in Germany; Heidewachtel in the Netherlands; Moonster (affectionate term). [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar Miniature Pinscher 2008-07-10T09:06:06Z 2008-07-10T09:06:06 2008-07-10T09:06:06Z

<a href="/encyclopedia/index.php/Academic_Kids:Edit_summary" class='internal' title="Briefly describe the changes you have made here">Edit summary</a>: <hr /> <div> {| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=2 |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Miniature Pinscher |- align=center |[[Image:Roodog2-pavlov.jpg|thumb|250px|none|Miniature Pinscher]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Alternative names |- | {| align=center |- |Zwergpinscher |} |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Common nickname |- align=center |Minpin |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Country of origin |- align=center |[[Germany]] |- align=center bgcolor=pink !Classification and breed standards |- | {| align=center |[[F?ration Cynologique Internationale|FCI]]: || Group 2 Section 1 #185 |[http://www.dogdomain.com/FCI/fcistandards/fci-185.htm Stds] |- |[[American Kennel Club|AKC]]: || Toy |[http://www.akc.org/breeds/miniature_pinscher/index.cfm Stds] |- |[[Australian National Kennel Council|ANKC]]: || Group 1 (Toys) |[http://www.ankc.aust.com/minpin.html Stds] |- |[[Canadian Kennel Club|CKC]]: || Group 5 - Toys |- |[[Kennel Club (UK)|KC(UK)]]: || Toy |[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/toy/y914.htm Stds] |- |[[New Zealand Kennel Club|NZKC]]: || Toy |[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br144.html Stds] |- |[[United Kennel Club|UKC]]: || Companion Breeds |[http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/companions/miniaturepinscher.std.shtml Stds] |- |} |} The '''Miniature Pinscher''', also known as the ''Minpin'' by fanciers, is a [[toy dog|toy breed]] of [[dog]]. In its native Germany, the dog is known as the '''Zwergpinscher'''. The name roughly translates into English as ''midget biter'' or ''midget terrier''. Minpins were first bred to hunt vermin, especially rats. == Appearance == Typically, the Minpin stands between 25 and 30 [[cm]] (10 and 12.5 [[inch|in]]) at the [[withers]], give or take a bit depending on the breed standard. Its weight is about 2.3 to about 4.5 [[kilogram|kg]] (5 to 10 [[pound|lb]]). The coat colors, according to most breed standards, are red, stag-red, red-brown, dark-red brown, and black with tan or reddish/reddish-brown markings. The coat should be short and smooth. A Minpin frequently has [[docking|docked]] ears and tail, although this is becoming a somewhat controversial practice, especially outside the [[United States]]. ==Temperament== Dogs, like people, have a wide range of personalities. Although the same is true for Minpins, members of the breed generally share some personality traits. Minpins, by their nature, are not generally timid, calm "lap dogs." Rather, they have an energetic spirit and curious nature. Although small, a Minpin generally makes a good watchdog, as the breed is eager to sound the alarm when unfamiliar people and creatures appear in or around the home. [[image:Roodog2k-ivan-and-boxer.JPG|thumb|left|Socialization can never begin too early.]] ===Socialization=== As with any puppy of any breed, it is important to properly [[socialize]] a Minpin puppy with people and dogs. This is especially true for Minpins, since their small size combined with curiosity and fearlessness could pose problems with larger dogs and human houseguests. Fans of the breed argue that its exhuberant spirit and small size make it the ideal house or apartment dog. The dog's energetic temperment, cat-like agility, and curious nature, however, may not be for everyone. == Care == Although the breed is not necessarily bad with children, care must be taken in educating youths about proper handling and play. Although Minpins are known to bound through, around, and over obstacles, they can be easily injured by rough play with a child. Grooming is easy, as the smooth, short-haired coat requires little attention. Care must be taken in colder weather, however, as this coat provides virtually no protection from the cold. Due to their inbred instinct to hunt vermin, one should take special care in preventing a Minpin to "attack" small objects, such as bottle caps, as they could pose a choking hazard. ==History== Although appearing similar to the [[Dobermann|Doberman Pinscher]], the Minpin is not a "Miniature Doberman". Rather, the breed is believed to be older. Similarities between the two may result from a common genetic relation to the [[German Pinscher]]. Some genetic stock may have been contributed by the [[Italian Greyhound]] and the [[Dachshund]]. [[Image:TN dog 183C.jpg|100px]] == Dog Pictures and Clipart == *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Animals/Dogs Pictures of Dogs] *[http://classroomclipart.com/cgi-bin/kids/imageFolio.cgi?direct=Clipart/Animals/Dog_Clipart Dog Clipart] {{AnimalClipart}}</div>

AcademicSysop foobar